" The offering thrown into the fire reaches the sun; from the sun comes rain; from rain food; and from this (food) all creatures.'* [Manus Hi. 76).
Yajwa or sacrifice here spoken of refers to what is called apurva;* and this apurva is the result of the activities of the sacrificer and his priests (ritviks) engaged in a sacrifice. These activities are enjoined in the Veda (Brahman), and the Veda comes from the Imperishable, the Paramatman, the Highest Self. Because the Veda has arisen from the Highest Self — the Akshara, the Imperishable, — as the breath comes out of a man, therefore, the Veda, though all-comprehending as reveal- ing all things, ever rests in sacrifice, i.e., it treats mainly of sacrifices and the mode of their performance.
• r>p • * ^ f\ 16, He who follows not here the wheel thus set in motion, who is of sinful life, indulging in senses, he lives in vain, O son of Pfitha.
He who ought to perform action, but who, indulging in sensual pleasures, does not follow the wheel of the world thus * The unseen from which a sacrifice is said to assume between the time of its performance and the time when its results become manifested; it being, in short, the connecting link between the two, the cause and the effect.
102 THE BHAGAVAD GITA. [DlS. III.
set revolving by Is vara on the basis of the Veda and sacri- fices, * he lives in vain.
The main drift, therefore, of this section (iii. 4. 16) is that action should be performed by the ignorant man, for whom it is intended. In iii. 4-8, it was taught that till he attains the qualification for Devotion to the knowledge of the Self, the man who knows not the Self and is therefore qualified (for action only) should resort to Devotion to action as a means of attaining Devotion to knowledge j and, further, there were incidentally propounded (in iii. 9-16) many reasons why the man who knows not the Self and is (therefore) qualified for action should perform it. Mention, too, has been made of evils arising from a neglect of action. Karma-Yoga is not meant for the Self-knower.
Now, the Lord Himself supposes Arjuna to ask the fol- lowing question: Is the wheel, thus set in motion, to be fol- lowed by all, or by him only who has not yet attained to devotion in the path of knowledge which the Sankhyas or Self*knowers tread and which is attainable by the ignorant by means of devotion in the path of action already described? In answer to this question, or with a view to afford, of. his own accord, a clear understanding of the teaching of the sastra, He proceeds to show that what is intended to be taught in the Gita-sastra is the same truth that is embodied in the following 'passage of the sruti: " The Br&hmanas (the devotees of the Brahman, the Self), knowing this, the Self, and free from illusory know- ledge, shake off all desires of progeny, etc-, cherished, of necessity^ by those who are still subject to illusion; and they lead a mendicant life for the barest necessaries of * i.e*t he who does not follow the wheel by studying the Vedas and performing the sacrifices therein enjoined, as commanded by Jsvara.
16—18] KARMA YOGA. 103 life. They have nothing else to do than resort to devo- tion to Self-knowledge." (Bn. Up. 3-5-1).
17. That man, verily, who rejoices only in the Self, who is satisfied with the Self, who is con- tent in the Self alone, — for him there is nothing to do.
But that man — a sa^nyasin, the Sankhya, ane devoted to Self-knowledge— whose joy is in the Self, not in the objects of the senses; who is satisfied only with the Self, not with food-essence, etc; who is contented in the Self; — all others derive contentment from possession of external things, where- as, disregarding these, he is content in the Self only and has no desire for anything; — for such a man, for the man who knows the Self, there is nothing to do.
Moreover, 18. For him, there is here no interest what- ever in what is done or what is not done. Nor is there in all beings any one ne should resort to for any object.
For the man thus rejoicing in the Self, no purpose is served by action.-— Does, then, any evil called sin (pratyav&ya) arise from inaction?— No evil whatever, either by way of incurring sin, or by way of losing the Self, arises in this world 104 THE BHAGAVAD GITA. [DlS. III.
from inaction. Nor is there, in all beings from Brahma (Prajapati) down to the sthavara or immovable objects, any whose support he has to gain by action. He has no object whatever to gain, for which he has to depend upon any parti- cular being: if he were to have any object in view, then he would have to exert himself to gain that object Arjtma qualified for Karma-yoga.
You have not attained to the right knowledge, which corresponds to the all-spreading flood of water (vide ii. 46). Wherefore: 19, Therefore, without attachment, constant- ly perform the action which Should be done; for, performing action without attachment, man reaches the Supreme.
Performing action, without attachment, for the sake of the Isvara, man attains moksha, through attaining purity of mind (sattva-suddhi). The wise should set an example to the masses.
For the following reason also (shouldst thou perform action): 20. By action only, indeed, did Janaka and others try to attain perfection. Even with a view to the protection of the masses thou shouldst per- form (action).
18—20] KARMA YOGA. 105 The wise kshatriyas of old, such as Janaka and Asvapati * tried by action alone to attain moksha (sam-siddhi). If they were persons possessed of right knowledge, then we should understand that, since they had been engaged in works, they tried to reach moksha with action, i.e., without abandoning action, t with a view to set an example to the world. If, on the other hand, such men as Janaka were persons who had not attained right knowledge, then, (we should understand), they tried to attain moksha through action which is the means of attaining purity of mind (sattva-suddhi).
If you think that obligatory works were performed by the ancients such as Janaka because they were ignorant, and that it does not follow from that » fact alone that action should be performed by another who possesses right knowledge and has done all his duties, — even then, as subject to your prarabdha-karma (the karma which has led you to this birth as a kshalriya), and having regard also to the purpose of pre- venting the masses from resorting to a wrong path, you ought to perform action.
Who should secure the welfare of the world? And how? The answer follows: fThough such persons as Janaka were men of right knowledge, they had no right to enter the fourth order of samny&sa, as they were kshatri- yas. In obedience therefore to their prarabdha-karma {*'.<?., the karma which led them to that birth and which had to be worked out in tha* birth) which caused them to be born as kshatriyas, they went on in their spiritual career without renouncing works, lest, otherwise, the masses would follow their example. It is, however, proper that they should attain moksha in virtue of their right knowledge.
106 THE BHAGAVAB GITA. [DlS. IIL 21. Whatsoever a great man does, that alone the other men do; whatever he sets up as the standard, that the world follows.
Whatever authority the chief among men follows, whether in relation to the spiritual or temporal matters, the same is regarded as the authority by his followers.
If you have a doubt even as regards the necessity there is for the protection of the masses, why do you not observe Me*?
22. I have nothing whatsoever to achieve in the three worlds, O son of Pritha, nor is there any- thing unattained that should be attained; yet I engage in action.
I have nothing to achieve, for, there is nothing unattained^ 23. For, should I not ever engage in action, unwearied, men would in all matters follow My path9 O son of Pritha.
My: I being the chief among men.
* i,e<, why do you not follow My example and try to prevent the masses from going astray by setting an example yourself.
21—25] KARMA YOGA. 107 And what harm is there in that? — The Lord says: 24. These worlds would be ruined if I should not perform action; I should be the cause of confusion of castes, and should destroy these creatures.
If I should not perform action, then there would be no action conducive to the continuance of the universe, and all these worlds would fall into ruin. Moreover, I would be the author of confusion of castes, and thereby destroy these creatures. Thus, though working for the welfare of the creatures, I would bring about their ruin, — which would be unbecoming of Me, their lord.
The wise man's action as contrasted with that of the ignorant.
Suppose, on the other hand, you — or suppose (for that matter) any other man thinks that he has achieved his ends and has realised the Self, even he should work * for the wel- fare of others, though for himself he may have nothing to do.
25, As ignorant men act attached to work, O Bharata, so should the wise man act, unattached from a wish to protect the masses.
The ignorant expect the result of their action thus: " The result of this action shall accrue to me." The wise man: he who knows the Self.
* Even he should perform action in view of the welfare of others* 108 THE BHAGAVAD GITA. [DlS. III.
For Me, or for any other person who, knowing the Self, thus seeks the welfare of the world, there is nothing to do except it be with a view to that welfare of the world at large. To such a man who knows the Self, the following advice is offered: 26. Let no wise man cause unsettlement in the minds of the ignorant who are attached to action; he should make them do all actions, him- self fulfilling them with devotion.
An ignorant man who is attached to action believes " I should do this action and enjoy its result." No wise man should unsettle that firm belief- — What then should he do? — Himself doing diligently and well the actions which the ignorant have to do, he should make them do those actions.
In what way is an ignorant man attached to actions f 27. Actions ate wrought in all cases by the energies of Nature. He whose mind is deluded by egoism thinks 1 1 am the doer.* Nature (Prakriti, Pradh&na) is the equipoised state of the three guwas or energies, viz., sattva (goodness), rajas (activity), tamas (darkness). It is by the gunas or the modi- fications of Nature, manifesting themselves as the body and the senses, that all our actions, conducive to temporal and spiritual ends, are done. The man whose mind (antafrkarawa) 25—29] KARMA YOGA. 109 is variously deluded by ahawkara, by egoism identifying the aggregate of the body and the senses with the Self, i- e.f who ascribes to himself all the attributes of the body and the senses and thus thoroughly identifies himself with tham — he, by nescience, sees actions in himself: as regards every action, he thinks "lam the doer."
But as regards the wise man: 28. But he who knows the truth, O mighty- armed, about the divisions of the energies and (their) functions, is not attached, thinking that the energies act upon the energies.
He who is versed in the classification of the energies (gu^as) and their respective functions holds that the energies as sense-organs move amid the energies as sense-objects, but not the Self. Thus holding, he forms no attachment (for actions).
Now, 29. Those deluded by the energies of Nature are attached to the functions of the energies. He who knows the All should not unsettle the unwise who know not the All.
The foolish believe " we do action for the sake of its result" These men who are attached to action look only to the result of their actions. The man who knows the HO THE BHAGAVAD GITA. [DlS. Ill- All — the man who knows the Self — should not of himself unsettle such men,t-e., he should not disturb their conviction.
How an aspirant for Moksha should do actions.
How then should action be performed by the ignorant man who seeks moksha and who is qualified for action only? The answer follows: 30 Renouncing all action in Me, with thy thought resting on the Self, being free from hope, free from selfishness, devoid of fever, do thou fight.
To Me, Vasudeva, the Divine Being, the Supreme Lord, the Omniscient, the Self of all, surrender all actions, with the wise thought that " I, the agent, do this for the Isvara's sake as His liege." Fever: anguish, grief.
'fa- 's n * tow? Haragrasra mmn 1 31. Men who constantly practise this teach- ing of Mine with faith and without cavilling, they too are liberated from actions.
Men who always follow this teaching of Mine without cavilling, *'.«., without cherishing any feeling of envy towards Me, Vasudeva, the Supreme Master (Parama-Guru)— they too are released from actions, i.e., from dharma and a-dharma, from the merit and demerit of actions.
29—33] KARMA YOGA. Ill 32. But those who, carping at this, My teaching, practise it not, — know them as deluded in all knowledge, as senseless men doomed to destruction.
Influence of man's nature on Ms conduct.
Then, why do they, not following Thy doctrine, perform others' duties and neglect their own? Thus opposed to Thee, why are they not afraid of the sin of transgressing Thy command?
srff fif ^FFcT Jpfft Rsr?: ft vftraiit WW U 33. Even the man of knowledge acts in con* formity with his own nature; (all) beings follow (their) nature; what shall coercion avail?
Nature (prakriti) is the sawskara (the latent self-repro- ductive impression of the past acts of dharma and a-dharma) manifesting itself at the commencement of the present birth. Even the man of knowledge acts according to his own nature; it needs no saying that an ignorant man acts according to his own nature. Thus all living beings follow their own nature. What shall coercion in the shape of prohibition avail? That is to say, to Me or to anybody else, nature is irresistible. Scope for man's personal exertion.
(Objection):— If every being acts according to its own nature only, — and there is none that has no nature of its own, — then, there being possibly no scope for personal exertion 112 THEBHAGAVAD GITA. [DlS. III.
(purushakara), the Teaching (sastra) would be quite purpose- less.
(Answer): — The Lord replies as follows: 34. Love and hate lie towards the object of each sense; let none become subject to these two; for, they are his enemies.
As regards all sense-objects, such as sounds, there neces- sarily arises in each sense love for an agreeable object, and aversion for a disagreeable object. Now I shall tell you where lies the scope for personal exertion and for the Teaching (sastra). He who would follow the Teaching should at the very commencement rise above the sway of affection and aversion. For, what we speak of as the nature (prakriti) of a person draws him to its course only through love and aversion. He then neglects his own duties and sets about doing those of others. When, on the other hand, a person restrains these feelings by means of their enemy*, then he will become mindful of the Teaching only, no longer subject to his own nature. Wherefore, let none come under the sway of these two; for, they are his adversaries, obstacles to his progress in the right path, like thieves on the road.
Now, the man who is led by love and aversion may mis- understand the Teaching; he may think that one man may follow the duty (dharma) of another because the latter is also a duty. But it is not right to think so: * Viveka~j»&na or Right knowledge is the enemy; for, it is inimical to mithya-jnana or ill usory knowledge, the source of affection and aver* sion, 34—36] KARMA YOGA. 113 35. Better one's own duty, though devoid of merit, than the duty of another well discharged. Better is death in one's own duty; the duty of another is productive of danger.
For a man to die doing his own duty though devoid of merit is better than for him to live doing the duty of another though perfectly performed- For, the duty of another leads to danger, such as hell (naraka).
Desire is the Enemy of Han.
Though the source of evil has been pointed out in ii. 62, etc, and in iii. 34, yet with a view to eliciting a concise and clear statement of what was but desultorily and vaguely ex- pressed,— for, the exact cause being koown, he might exert himself to exterminate it, — Arjuna asks: Arjuna said; 36. But by what dragged on, O Varshneya, does a man, though reluctant, commit sin, as if constrained by force?
Dragged on w& comtraimd: as a servant by the king. 'Varshneya: one born in the family of the Wisbttis.
The Lord says: Listen, I shall tell you who that enemy is, of whom you ask* who the source of all evil is •• 114 THE BHAGAVAD-GITA. [DlS. III.
[Vasudeva is here called the Lord (Bhagavat), because He is one in whom the six attributes of unimpeded dominion «to, ever abide collectively and in perfection, and who pos- sesses a complete knowledge of the origin of the universe etc. Says the Vishwu-Purawa: " *Bhaga' means the six attributes — perfect dominion, might, glory, splendour, dispassion and salvation," (vi. 5-74).
" He is called the Lord (Bhagavat), who knows the origin and the end, the coming and the going of beings, what is wisdom and what is ignorance." (vi. 5-78.)]
The Blessed Lord said: 37. It is desire, it is wrath, born of the energy of Rajas* all-devouring, all sinful; that, know thou, is the foe here.
The enemy of the whole world is desire, from which all the evil comes* to living beings. When obstructed by some cause, desire is transformed into wrath. Whence wrath is desire itself. It is born of the energy of Rajas. — Or, desire itself is the cause of the energy of Rajas; for, when desire arises, it rouses the Rajas and urges the person to action. We often hear the cry of miserable persons — who are engaged in servitude, etc., under the impulse of the Rajas, — saying ' I have been led to act so by desire.' It is very sinful; for it is only when urged by desire that a man commits sin. Where- fore, know that this desire is man's foe here in samsara.
36—39] KARMA YOGA. 115 Desire Enshrouds Wisdom.
He now illustrates how it is our foe.• 38. As fire is surrounded by smoke, as a mirror by rust, as the foetus is enclosed in the womb, so is this covered by it.
As a bright fire is surrounded by dark smoke co-existent with it...so this is covered with desire.
What is the thing referred to by * this ' and which is •covered with desire? — The answer follows: 39. Covered, O son of Kunti, is wisdom by this constant enemy of the wise, in the form of desire, which is greedy and insatiable.
The wise man knows, even before suffering the conse- quence, that he has been led by desire to evil ways, and therefore he feels ever miserable. Whence desire is a constant enemy of the wise, not of the ignorant. For, the latter regards desire as a friend at the time he thirsts for objects, and it is only when suffering results from it, — but not before,— that he learns the truth that he has been rendered miserable by desire.
Wherefore it is a constant enemy of the wise alone It is insatiable and greedy; it never has enough, i.e., it finds nothing enough for itself, u e., there is no limit to its consum- ing power.
116 THE BHAGAVAD-GITA. [DlS. Ill, The Seat of Desire.
He now tells us where is seated desire which by envelop* tag wisdom, forms the enemy of the whole world. The seat of the enemy being known, it is easy to kill it.
40. The senses, mind, and reason are said to be its seat; veiling wisdom through these, it deludes the embodied.
Ms seat: the seat of desire. These: the senses mind (manas), and reason (buddhi).
How to Kill out Desire.
Wherefore, www mm. ir ^T^m^rnERq: 11 % % it 41. Therefore, O lord of the Bhaiatas, restrain the senses first, do thou cast off this sinful thing which is destructive of knowledge and wisdom.
J#anais the knowledge of the Self and other things acquired from the sastra (scripture) and from a teacher (acharya). Vi-jnana is the personal experience of the things so taught. Do thou cast off from you the destroyer of jrcana and vijwana which lead to the highest good It has been taught, " first master the senses, and cast off desire* thy enemy." Now it may he asked, — Where should one take one*s stand and cast off desire? The answer follows: 40—43] KARMA YOGA. 117 42. They say that the senses are superior; superior to the senses is mind; superior to mind is reason; one who is even superior to reason is He.
The senses are five, the sense of bearing, etc. When compared with the physical body, which is gross, external, and limited, the senses are superior as they are comparatively more subtle and internal, and have a more extensive sphere of action. So say the wise. Superior to the senses is mind (manas, the impulsive nature) ^fhich is composed of thoughts and desires, of errors and doubts, (sankalpa and vikalpa), Superior to mind is reason (buddhi) characterized by determi- nation (nischaya). So, He who is behind all things visible, inclusive of reason, the Dweller m the body, whom— it has been said—desire, seated in the senses and other quarters, bewilders by enveloping wisdom, — He, the Self, the witness of reason, is superior to reason, 43. Then knowing Hitn who is superior to reason, subduing the self by the self, siay thou, O mighty-armed, the enemy in the form of desire, bard to conquer.
Thus understanding the Self who is superior to reason, and subduing the self by the elf, i.e., steadily composing the self by means of the self.* do thou slay desire. It is difficult to conquer desire, on account of its complex and incomprehensible nature.
'■ " ■— %■ in 1,m!
* The regenerated or purified mind (self, manas) is the means of attaining self-composure (tnanas-sam&dh&na) — (A).
FOURTH DISCOURSE. JNAffA-YOGA.
Tradition of Jnana-Yoga.
This Yoga of Devotion to knowledge taught in the last two Discourses, accompanied with renunciation and attained by means of Karma-Yoga, — this Yoga in which the Vedic teaching regarding the life of activity and retirement (Pravritti and Nivritti) is comprehended, — it is this Yoga which forms the subject of the Lord's teaching throughout the Gita. Thinking, therefore, that the Vedic Doctrine has been con- cluded, He extols it by relating its pedigree.
The Blessed Lord said.: i. I taught this imperishable Yoga to Vivas- vat; Vivasvat taught it to Manu; Manu taught to Ikshvaku.
This Yoga, treated of in the two preceding Discourses, I taught to the Sun (Vivasvat) at the commencement of Evolu- tion in order to infuse strength into the Kshatriyas, the rulers of the world. It is only when possessed of the strength of this Yoga that they can protect the Brahmawas, the spiritual class. And when the spiritual and ruling classes are well maintained, it is possible to maintain the world. That Yoga is imperishable, because of its imperishable results. Indeed, Moksha, the fruit of this Yoga of complete devotion to right knowledge, never perishes. Vivasvat taught it to Manu; and Manu taught it to his son Ikshvaku the first ruler.
2. This, handed down thus in succession, the King-sages learnt, This Yoga, by long lapse of time, has been lost here, O harasser of foes.
This Yoga, thus handed down In regular succession among the Kshatriyas, the king-sages — men who were at once kings and sages — learnt. The tradition of this Yoga has now for a long time been broken here, O Arjuna, who harasses! thy foes, like the sun, by the heat of thy prowess.
Saeing that the Yoga has been lost by falling into the hands of the weak who could not control their senses, and seeing also that the people have not been able to attain the object of life.
3. That same ancient Yoga has been to-day taught to thee by Me, seeing that thou art My devotee and friend; for, this is the Supreme Secret.
This knowledge, this Yoga, is the Supreme Secret. Divine Incarnations.
In order not to leave in anybody's mind an impression that an inconsistent statement has been made by the Lord » and with a view to avoiding that impression, Arjuna asks as though he were to raise an objection: Arjuna said; 4. Later is Thy birth, and prior the birth of Vivasvat; how am I to understand that Thou taughtest this Yoga in the beginning?
Thy birth is later, in the house of Vasudeva: Vivasvat' s (Aditya's) birth is prior, in the beginning of evolution; how then, am I to reconcile the statement that Thou taughtest this Yoga in the beginning (to Vivasvat), and that Thou, the self-same person, has now taughHt to me?
To remove — as was the aim of Arjuna's question — from the ignorant the impression that Vasudeva was not the Omnipotent and the Omniscient, the Blessed Lord says: The Blessed Lord said: 5. Many births of Mine have passed, as well as of thine, O Arjuna; *ali these I know, thou know- es not, O harasser of foes.
Thou hnowest not, because the power of vision is obstruc- ted by thy past action, good and bad (dharma and adharma). I, on the other hand, know them, because I am by nature eternal, pure, wise, unbound, and My power of vision is unobstructed* 4—7] JNANA YOGA. 121 How, then, canst Thou, the eternal Lord, have a birth, in the absence of dharma and a-dharma? — Listen: silfir OTRrasFr s*TOiwnwn*raT u ^ II 6. Though I am unborn, of imperishable nature, and though I am the Lord of all beings, yet ruling over My own nature, I am born by My own Maya\ Though X am unborn, though by nature my power of vision (jnana-sakti) is undecaying, though I am by nature the Lord of all creatures from Brahma down to grass, yet ruling over by nature — the Praknti, the Maya of Vishnu, which is made up of the three energies of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas, to which this whole universe is subject, and by which deluded the whole world knows not Vasudeva, its own Self, — I appear to be born and embodied, through my own Maya, but not in reality, unlike others.
THE PURPOSE OF DIYINE INC&RN&TION.
When and for what purpose is He so born? — The answer follows: nm i<?t ft mm ^Tfwm% srrcs i 7. Whenever there is a decay of religion, O Bharata, and an ascendency of irreligion, then I manifest Myself.
Religion: Dharma as embodied in the institution of castes (varwa) and religious orders (asrama) which are the means of attaining worldly prosperity and salvation. When- ever there is a decay of religion (Dharma),,.. I manifest Myself through Maya.
122 THE BHAGAVAD-GITA. [DlS. IV, For what purpose?
8, For the protection of the good, for the destruction of evil-doers, for the firm establishment of religion, I am born in every age.
The Good; those who are in the right path.
9» Whoso knows thus My divine birth and action in truth is not born again on leaving this body; he comes to Me, O Arjuna.
My birth is an illusion (Maya). It is Divine, peculiar to Isvara, not of ordinary nature (aprakma). Me comes to me: He is liberated.
JNAN&-YOG& 18 THE SOLE MEANS TO MOKSH&.
This path of salvation is not recent, but it was in vogue, even in ancient times?
10. Free from passion, fear and anger, absorbed in Me, taking refuge in Me, purified by the fire ftapas) of wisdom, many have reached My being.
Absorbed in Me: knowing Brahman, ». e.f seeing their identity with Isvara. Taking refuge in Me> Parame*vara» the Supreme Lord, *. e., firmly devoted to wisdom only- Jwma-tapas: religious austerity (tapas) in the form of jwana or knowledge of the Highest Self. Paramatman.— This com- pound indicates that Devotion to knowledge is quite inde- pendent of all other austerities (tapases). Having attained to highest purity by means of this fire of austerity (tajm)% many have attained moksha.
DIYINE DISPENSATION OF WORLDLY BENEFITS 1ND SALVATION.
Then, Thou cherishest the feelings of affection and aver- sioni since Thou awardest moksha, Thy Being (identity with Thy Self), to a few only, not to ail?— The answer follows: 11. Howsoever men approach Me, even so do I reward them; My path do men follow in all things O son of Pntha.
I reward men by granting them the things they desire just in accordance with the way in which they seek Me and the motive with which they seek Me; for they do not seek for moksha. One cannot indeed pursue pleasure and at the same time seek for moksha. Wherefore, I reward seekers of fruits by securing to them their selfish ends; I reward the unselfish, who do their prescribed duties and seek for moksha, by granting them knowledge; I reward men of knowledge who have renounced the world and seek for moksha, by granting them moksha; similarly, I reward men in distress by relieving them from distress. Thus do 1 reward all, just in the way they seek Me. But never do i reward any from affection or aversion, or from delusion. la all things, men follow My path, the path of the Isvara who exists in all forms.* [Here * men ' stands for all those t who are engaged in works prescribed according to their respective ends.]