5 “The painter will not inquire what things may be ad- mitted without much censure. He will not think it enough to show that they may be there, he will show that they must be there; that their absence would render his picture maimed and defective.—They should make a part of that whole which would be imperfect without them.”’—Sir J. Reynolds, Disc. on Paint- ing, p- 106. Twining.
1 Cf. Sheridan’s Critic, vii. 1. ‘‘ What the plague! a play is not to show occurrences that happen every day, but thi just so strange, that though they never did, they might happen.”
2F with metre, than without metre. But they differ in this, that the one speaks of things which have hap- pened, and the other of such.as might have happened. 3. Hence Hence, poetry is more philosophic, and more deserv- poctry ing of attention, than history. For poetry speaks universa...and phi- -more of universals, but history of particulars, But losophic. universal consists indeed in relating or performing ΤΌΣ certain things which happen to a man of a certain universal description, either probably or necessarily, [to which and par- the aim of poetry is directed in giving names*;] but ticular, particular consists in narrating what, [for example, ] 5. Asis Alcibiades did, or what he suffered. In comedy, evident in therefore, this is. now become evident. For [comic comedy. oets] having composed a fable through things of a probable nature, they thus give whatever names they please® to their characters, and do not, like Iambic 6. Real poets, write poems about particular persons. But in names re- tragedy they cling to real names. ‘The cause, how- meg όσοι ever, of this is that the possible is credible. Things, ’ therefore, which have not yet been done, we do not yet believe to be possible; but it is evident that things which have been done are possible; for they would not have been done, if they were impossible. 7. putnot Not, indeed, but that in some tragedies there are one real or two of known names, and the rest are feigned; aay but in others there is no known name; as, forinstance, dora mamckov in the Flower of Agatho. For in this tragedy, the Se ( αὐλῷ. things and the names are alike feigned, and yet it ‘Sine 8.Nor delights no less. Hence, one must not seek to admustwe here entirely to traditional fables, which are the sub- ΡῈ jects of tragedy. For it is ridiculous to make this ourselves the object of search, because even known subjects are to tradi- known but toa few, though at the same time they tional fables.
3 Ritter well observes that the perspicuity of this otherwise clear passage is destroyed by this absurd interpolation.
3 Thus nearly all the names in the tragedies of Terence and Plautus, thus Dromo and Sosia are applied to slaves, Pamphi- lus to a lover, Glycerium or Philumena to a lady, Pyrgopoli- nices or Thraso to soldiers. Also the names in Petronius and Apuleius, as Pannychis, Meroe Fotis, etc. So Ben Jonson has personified the virtues and vices in ‘‘ Cynthia’s Revels,” and elsewhere.. = uae CHAP. IX.; °.PCETIC...ἐν delight all men. - From these things, therefore, it is 9. Hence evident that a poet.ought rather to be the author. the plot, f P th of fables than of metres, inasmuch as he is a poet fee vile rom imitation, and he imitates actions. Hence, metre, is though it should happen that he relates things which obs ace have. happened, he is no less a poet. For nothing | hinders but that some actions which have happened, are such as might both probably‘ and possibly have happened, and by [the narration of] such he is a poet.
But of simple plots and actions, the episodic are 10. Ob- theworst. But I call the plot episodic, in which it is sock te, neither probable nor necessary thatthe episodes fnition follow each other, Such plots, however, are com- ἐν ΡΜ: 4 Τὸ may appear to the reader to be a strange observation, re that ‘‘ some true events May be probadle.’’ But he will recol- lect what sort of events, and what sort of probability, Aristotle here speaks of: i. e. of extraordinary events, such as Poetry requires, and of that more strict and penfect probability, that closer connexion and visible dependence of circumstances, which are always required from the poet, though in such events, not often to be found in fact, and real life, and there- fore not expected from the historian. Aristotle alludes to these two lines of Agatho: Tay’ ἄν τις εἰκὸς αὐτὸ Tar’ εἶναι λέγοι, Βροτοῖσι πολλὰ τυγχάνειν ἐκ εἰκότα.
Even this, it may be said, is probable, That many things improbable should happen, In human life.— See Rhet. ii. 24, 10, and Bayle’s Dict. Art. AGaTHon, note [Fr], who mentions a similar maxim of St. Bernard’s: *‘ Ordinatissimum est, minus interdum ordinaté fieri.” “ Il est tout a fait de l’ordre, que de tems en tems il se- fasse quelque chose contre l’ordre.”’
This general, and, if I may call it so, possible sort of proba- bility, may be termed, the probability of romance; and these lines of Agatho furnish a good apologetical motto for the novel writer. It might be prefixed, perhaps, without impropriety, even to the best productions of the kind—to a CLarissa, or a Crecit1a. Nothing is so commonly complained of in such works, as their improbability; and often, no doubt, the com- plaint is well-founded: often, however, the criticism mcans nothing more, than that the events are uncommon, ard proves nothing more, than the want of fancy, and an extended view of human life, ip. the reader. If the events were not uncommon, where would the book find Pace Twining.
finition of the terri- ble.
chance circum- stances, 1, Of fa- bles sim- ple and complex, posed by bad poets indeed, through their own want of ability5; but by good poets, on account of the players®. For, introducing [dramatic] contests, and extending the plot beyond its capabilities, they are frequently compelled to distort the connexion of the parts. But, since tragedy is not only an imitation of a perfect action, but also of actions which are ter- rible and piteous, and actions principally become such, [and in a greater degree, when they happen contrary to opinion,’] on account of each other. * * * * For thus they will possess more of the marvellous, than if they happened from chance and fortune; since, also, of things which are from for- tune, those appear to be most admirable, which seem to happen as it were by design. Thus the statue of Mityus at Argos, killed him who was the cause of the death of Mityus by falling as he was surveying it. For such events as these seem not to take place casually. Hence it is necessary that fables of this kind should be more beautiful. ) CHAP. X. Fables either simple or compound.
Or fables, however, some are simple, and others complex; for so also are the actions of which fables are the imitations. But I call the action simple, a en ee 5 Such is the sense of δι᾽ adrods=“ propter ingenii tarditatem.”’ Ritter.
6 i. 6. that the play may not show off only one actor. Thus a modern dramatist writes a play for Charles Kean, and puts in a few episodes for Buckstone or Keeley. It is clear from this that plays were often written to suit particular performers.
7 These words are condemned as interpolated. But the apodosis to the whole sentence is wanting, and I have therefore marked the lacuna with Ritter.
* A similar story of the death of a cruel beloved being killed by the falling of a statue of Cupid, is told by Theocritus, Id xxiii. sub fin.
CHAP. XIe| POETIC. 42, from which taking place, as it has been defined, with continuity and unity, there is a transition without either revolution or discovery; but complex, from which there is a transition, together with discovery, or revolution, or both. It is necessary, however, that these should be effected from the composition itself of the fable, so that from what has formerly happened it may come to pass that the same things take place either necessarily or probably. For it makes a great difference whether these things are effected on account of these, or after these.
CHAP. XI. oe + Gre hewmt Now, revolution is a mutation, as has been stated, of actions into a contrary condition; and this, as we say, according to the probable, or the necessary. Thus in the “ Cidipus,'” the messenger who comes with an intention of delighting Gidipus and liberating him from his fear respecting his mother, when he makes himself known, produces a contrary effect. Thus, too, in the “ Lynceus,” he indeed is introduced as one who is to die, and Danaus follows with an intention of killing him; but it happens from the course of in- cidents, that Lynceus is saved, and Danaus is slain. And discovery is, as the name signifies, a change from ignorance to knowledge, or into the friendship or hatred of those who are destined to prosperous or adverse fortune. The discovery, however, is most beautiful, when at the same time there are, as in the “ (Edipus,?” revolutions. There are, therefore, other discoveries also. For sometimes it happens, as has been before observed, that there are discoveries of things inanimate, and casual; or if some one has 1 Cf. Soph. Géd. Tyr. 1014, sqq. Dind. 3 Such is the discovery of Joseph by his brethren, Gen. xlv. —the most beautiful and affecting example that can be given.
Twining. # I do not understand Aristotle to be here speaking of such Aad 1, Defini- tion of ree _ volution; 2. of dis- covery.
3. Other recogni- tions.
δ.
- 422 ἈΒΙΒΙΌΟΤΙΕΕΒ ἔσαν. xi Larolis>,sttanlef performed, or has not performéd, a thing, there is a recognition of it; but the discovery which especially ' pertains to the fable and the action is that before 4. Feel- ings ex- cited by revolu- tion and discovery.
6. The third re- ‘quisite is pathos or disaster.
mentioned. For a discovery and revolution of this kind will excite either pity or fear; and tragedy is supposed to be an imitation of such actions [as excite ‘fear and pity}. Again, it will happen that infelicity and felicity will be in such like discover- ies. But since diseovery is a discovery of certain persons, some [discoveries] are of one person only with reference to another, when it is evident who the other person is, but sometimes it is necessary to dis- cover both persons. _Thus Iphigenia was recognised by Orestes through the sending an epistle*; but another discovery was requisite to his being known by Iphigenia®. [| 'Two parts of the fable, therefore, viz. revolution and diseovery, are conversant with these things; but the third part is pathos. And of these, revolution and discovery have been already discussed. Pathos, however, is an action destructive, or lamentable; such as death when it is obvious, grievous pains, -wounds, and such like particulars®.].
CHAP. XII. On the Parts of Tragedy.
[Burt we have before spoken of the parts of tragedy which are requisite to constitute its quality. The parts of tragedy, however, according to quantity, and discoveries of “‘ inanimate things” (rings, bracelets, etc.) as are the means of bringing about the true discovery—that of the persons. For, in what follows, it is implied that these “‘ other sorts of discovery” produce neither terror nor pity, neither hap- piness nor unhappiness; which can by no means be said of such discoveries as are instrumental to the personal discovery, and, through that, to the catastrophe of the. piece. Of these, he treats afterwards.—Dacier, I think, has mistaken this. Twi- or Eur. Iph. Taur. 759. 92. 5 Ibid. 81]. 26.
». The whole of this paragraph is condemned by Ritter,.
CHAP XIi.] > POETIC. 429 into which it is separately divided, are as follow: prologue,' episode,’ exode,’ and chorus, of the parts of which one is the parodos,* but the other is the sta- simon.> ‘These hate parts, therefore, are common to all [tragedies|; but the peculiar parts are [the songs| from the scene and the kommoit. And. the prologue, indeed, is the whole part of the tragedy, prior to the entrance of the chorus. The episode - 15 the whole part of the tragedy between two complete 2, Pro- logue. Episode.
odes of the chorus. The exode is the whole part of Exode.
the tragedy, after which there is no further melody of the chorus. ‘And of the chorus, the parodos, in- deed, is the first speech of the whole chorus; but the stasimon is the melody of the chorus, without ana- pest and trochee: and the commos' is the common lamentation of the chorus and from the scene. But we have before shown what the parts of tragedy are which must necessarily be used; but the parts of it according to quantity, and into which it is separately divided, are these’. ] 1 Prologue—This may be compared to our first act. See note 40. Twining.
2 Episode—i. e. a part introduced, inserted, etc., as all the dialogue was, originally, between the choral odes. Twining.
3 Exode—i. 6. the going out, or exit; the concluding act, as we should term it. The Greek ha ρανας never finished with a choral ode. ‘Twining.
* Parode—i. e. entry of the chorus upon the stage: and hence the term was applied to what they first sung, upon their ἘΣ Twining.
5 ‘Stasimon—i. 6. stable; because, as it is explained, these odes were sung by the choral troop when fixed on the stage, and at rest: whereas the parode is said to have been sung as they came on. _ Hence, the trochaic and anapestic measures, being lively and full of motion, were adapted to the ον δ, but not to the stasimon. Twining.
6 From a verb signifying to beat or strike; alluding to the gestures of violent grief. _ 7 Ritter, who has illustrated this whole chapt ter with great learning and taste, allows its utility, but doubts that it is the work of Aristotle. The, reader will find his remarks on the different parts of tragedy very valuable.
Parodos, Stasimon Commos, 3.
2. Wes e Dhow not be simple. Proper vicissi- cudes.
nobalt Mor ys or 8 The character of the hero must be of a moderate CHAP. XIII. The Essentials for a Tragic Plot.
In the next place we must show, as consequent to what has been said, what those who compose fables ought to aim at, and beware of, and whence the purpose of tragedy is effected. Since, therefore, it is necessary that the composition of the most beau- tiful tragedy should not be simple, but complex, and that it should be imitative of fearful and piteous ac- tions—(for this is the peculiarity of such imitation) —in the first place it is evident, that it is not proper that worthy men should be represented as changed from prosperity to adversity, (for this is neither a subject of terror nor commiseration, but is impious, ) nor should depraved characters [be represented as changed | from adversity to prosperity; for this is the most foreign from tragedy of all things, since it pos- sesses nothing which is proper; for it neither appeals to moral sense’, nor is piteous, nor fearful. Nor, again, must a very depraved man be represented as having fallen from prosperity into adversity. For such a composition will indeed possess moral tend- ency, but not pity or fear. For the one is conversant with a character which does not deserve to be un- fortunate; but the other, with a character similar [to one’s own]. [And pity, indeed, is excited for one who does not deserve to be unfortunate; but fear, for one who resembles oneself?]; so that the event will neither appear to be commiserable, nor terrible. There remains therefore the character between these.
But a character of this kind is one, who neither ex- cels in virtue and justice, nor is changed through vice and depravity, into misfortune, from a state of 1 Ritter considers τὸ φιλάνθρωπον as a feeling bordering on ἔλεος, “id quidem quod prope ad miserationem accedit.” It probably is best expressed by our “‘ humanity,” considered in both its senses.
3 Ritter condemns these words as a marginal annotation.
CHAP. XIII. ] POETIC. 431 great renown and prosperity, but has experienced excel- this change through some [human] error; such as ened €Edipus and Thyestes, and other illustrious men of ty: this kind. Hence it is necessary that a plot which 4. Simple is well constructed, should be rather single? than fble pre twofold, (though some say it should be the latter,) twofold. and that the change should not be into prosperity from adversity, but on the contrary into adversity from prosperity, not through depravity, but through some great error, either of such a character [as we have mentioned |, or better rather than worse. But δ, Proof the proof of this is what has taken place. For of old from the the poets adopted any casual fables; but now the ον ἡπαρ δ Orestes, Meleager, Thyestes, and Telephus‘4, and such other persons as happen either to have suffered or done things of a dreadful nature. The tragedy, therefore, which is most beautiful according to art, is of this construction. Hence they erroneously blame 6, Anun- Euripides, who accuse him.-of having done this in his happy tragedies, and for making many of them terminate in por agi misfortune. For this method, as we have said, is tragedy, right; of which this is the greatest evidence, that in the scenes, and contests of the players, simple fables which terminate unhappily appear to be most tragical, if they are properly acted. And Euripides, though he does not manage other things well, yet appears to be the most tragic of poets®, The fable, 7. but however, ranks in the second place, though by some ee it is said to be the first composition, which has a °°?" twofold construction, such as the Odyssey, and which terminates in a contrary fortune, both to the better * What is here meant by a single fable, will appear presently from the account of its opposite—the double fable. It must not be confounded with the simple fable, though in the original both are expressed by the same word, The simple fable is only a fable without revolution, or discovery. Twining.
* The same remark applies to the French tragic stage.
5 But below, xv. 5. and Eth, iii. 1, Euripides is justly charged with the improper introduction of comic characters and lan- guage. The praise applies only to the catastrophe.
and worse characters. It appears, however, to rank re i in the first place, through the imbecility of the spec- ὑπ 8. andthe tators®. - For the poets, in composing their plots, ac-” happy commodate themselves to the wish of the spectators.
oe This pleasure, however, is not [properly] derived ferred. from tragedy, but is rather suited to comedy. For there, though the greatest enemies be introduced, as Orestes and A®gisthus, yet in the end they depart friends, and no one falls by the hand of the other’.
CHAP. XIV. Of Terror and Pity.
1. Terror TERROR and pity, therefore, may be produced from — pity, the sight!. But they may also arise from the com- ow produced. 6 That weakness which cannot bear strong emotions, even : from fictitious distress. 1 have known those who could not look at that admirable picture, the Ugolino of Sir Jos. Rey- nolds.—To some minds, every thing that is not cheerful is shocking.—But,; might not the preference here attributed to weakness, be attributed to better causes—the gratification of philanthropy, the love of justice, order, etc.?—the same causes which, just before, induced Aristotle himself to condemn, as shocking and disgusting, those fables which involve the virtuous in calamity. Twining.; Modern audiences partake of this weakness. Thus, the catastrophe of “Measure for Measure,” ‘‘Cymbeline,” or “‘ Winter’s Tale,” are more satisfactory than those of ‘‘ Ham- let”? or ‘‘ Pizarro.’”? Knowles’s “ Hunchback” is a happy - Specimen of ἀναγνώρισις, leading to a happy termination; while his ‘‘ Wife’’ displeases. Marston’s “ Heart and the World,”’ weak as the play is, is more agreeable than his “ Pa- trician’s Daughter.’ But, such plays are merely serious comedies. - 7 This is excellently applicable to the plays of Vanbrugh and Cibber.. Compare the conclusions of the ‘* Relapse,’ (Sir Tunbelly excepted,) the ‘‘ Provoked Wife,” etc. As to the ἀποθνήσκει οὐδεὶς ὑπ᾽ oddevos, it is very descriptive of the dueds in a modern or ancient comedy, as in ‘‘ London Assurance,” or in. the ‘Beaux Stratagem,’’ according to Scrub’s de- scription. STi 1 See avery pleasant paper of Addison’s on this subject; “ Spectator,”” No. 42. We know the effect of the skull and bination of the incidents, which is preferable, and the province of a better poet. For it is necessary that the fable should be so composed, that he who hears the things which are transacted, may be seized with horror, and feel pity, from the events, without the.
assistance of the sight; and in this manner any one who hears the fable of C&dipus is affected. But to effect this through spectacle is more inartificial, and requires great expense”. But they who produce not the terrible, but the monstrous alone, through scenic representation, have nothing in common with tragedy. For it is not proper to expect every kind of pleasure from tragedy, but that which is’ ap- ‘propriate. Since, however, it is necessary that the poet should procure pleasure from pity: and fear through imitation, it is evident that this must be ef- ‘fected by the circumstances. Let us, then, ascertain what kind of events appear to be dreadful or lament- able. But it is necessary that actions of this kind should either be those of friends towards each other, or of enemies, or of neither. If, therefore, an ene- my kills an enemy, he does not show any thing which is an object of pity, neither while he does the deed, nor when he is about to do it, except what arises from the deed itself. And this will; be the ‘case, when one of those who are neither friends nor enemies do the same. But when these things hap- pen in friendships*, as when a brother kills a. brother, or a son his father, or a mother her son, or a son his mother, or intends to do it, or does any thing else of the like kind—such subjects are to be sought for. “One must not, therefore, [completely] alter the re- ceived fables. I mean, for instance, such as the 2. The mon- strous not tragic, 3. The proper ‘ pleasure to be de- rived κάτ trae gedy, 4, What actions are dreadful or lament- able.
5. Furfable of Clytemnestra being slain by Orestes, and of ther pre black hangings in the ‘‘ Fair Penitent,”’ the scaffold in “ Venice Preserved,’’ the tomb in ‘‘ Romeo and Juliet,” etc. Twining. But Ritter understands ὄψις to mean the countenance of the actor.
2 “ Xopnyiav generatim pro pretioso et operoso apparatu et apte dici posse et eo intellectu ἢ. 1. accipiendam esse manifea- tum est.”’ Ritter.
3.4.5 in the “ Fatal Curiosity ” of Lillo. Twining, | af cepts re- specting fable.
6. Examples.
Eriphyle by Alemzon. But it is necessary that the poet should invent the plot, and use in a becoming manner those fables which are handed down. What, however, we mean by [using fables] in a becoming manner, let us explain more clearly. Now, the action may take place in such a way as the ancients have represented it, viz. knowingly with intent; as Euri- pides represents Medea killing her children. Men may also do an action, who are ignorant of, and afterwards discover their connexion [with, the in- jured party,| as in the “ Cidipus” of Sophocles. This, therefore, is extraneous to the drama‘, but is in the tragedy itself; as in the “ Alemzon” of As- tydamas, or Telegonus in the “ Ulysses Wounded °.” Further still, besides these there is a third mode, when some one is about to perpetrate, through ig- norance, an atrocious deed, but makes the discovery before he does it®. And besides these there is no other mode. For it is necessary to act, or not; and that knowing, or not knowing. But of these, to in- tend to perpetrate the deed knowingly, and not to perpetrate it, is the worst; for it is wicked and not tragical; because it is void of pathos. [ Hence, no poet introduces a character of this kind except rarely; as in the “ Antigone,” in which Hemon [endeavours to kill his father] Creon, [but does not 4 The murder of ‘Laius by G£dipus, his son, is supposed to have happened a considerable time before the beginning of the action. Twining.
5 Of these two dramas nothing more is known than the little that Aristotle here tells us. In the first, the poet adhered so far to history, as to make Alcemzon Kill his mother Eriphyle, but with the improvement, (according to Aristotle’s idea,) of making him do it ignorantly. The story of Telegonus is, that he was a son of Ulysses by Circe; was sent by her in quest of his father, whom he wounded, without knowing him, in a skirmish relative to some sheep, that he attempted to carry off from the island of Ithaca. It is somewhat singular, that the wound is said to have been given with a kind of Otaheite spear, headed with a sharp fish-bone. See Pope’s Odyssey, xi. 167, and the no‘e. Twining.
* Thus wn Talfourd’s “Ion,” Ion discovers Adrastus to be his father, just as he is on the point of murdering him, CHAP. xv.] - POETIC. 435 effect his purpose.]7 ] For the action here ranks in the second place. But it is better to perpetrate the deed ignorantly, and having perpetrated to discover; for then it is not attended with wickedness, and the discovery excites horror. The last mode, however, is the best; I mean, as in the “Cresphontes,” in which Merope is about to kill her son, but does not, in consequence of discovering that he was her son. Thus, too, in the “Iphigenia in Tauris,” in which the sister is going to kill the brother, [but recog- nises him;] and in the “ Helle,” the son is about to betray his mother, but is prevented by recognising her. Hence, as has been formerly observed, trage- dies ‘are not conversant with many families; for poets were enabled to discover incident of this kind in fables, not from art, but from fortune*. They were compelled, therefore, to direct their attention to those families in which calamities of this kind happened.
And thus we have spoken sufficiently concerning the combination of the incidents, and have shown what kind of fables ought to be employed.
CHAP, XV.
WirTH respect to manners, however, there are four things to which one ought to direct attention: one, indeed, and the first, that they be good. But the tragedy will indeed possess manners, if, as was said, the words or the action render any deliberate inten- tion apparent; containing good manners’, if the deliberate intention is good. But manners are to be found in each genus; for both a woman and a slave may be good; though perhaps of these, the one is 7 Ritter condemns this passage. See also Donaldson, Intro- duction to the Antigone, p. xl.
* i. 6. to history or tradition. [ The interpolation φαῦλον μὲν ἐὰν φαύλη ἢ is rightly thrown out by Ritter..
8.
1. Requi- sites 0 manners, that they express wooaipe- as, 436, ARISTOTLE’S [cHaP. xv less good, and the other is wholly bad’, In the - second place, the manners must be adapted to the persons. For there are manners which are characterized by fortitude, hut_it_is not suited to a woman to be either brave oF ter plde ‘In the third place, the manners must be similar’ For this, as was before observed, differs from making the manners to be good and adapted‘. In the fourth place, they must be uni- eons2l form;’ for if he is anomalous, who exhibits the imita- tion, and expresses such like manners, at the same time it is necessary that he should be uniformly un- equal. The example, however, of depraved manners ‘is indeed not necessary; such, for instance, as that of Menelaus in the “ Orestes,” but an example of un- becoming and unappropriate manners is, the lamenta- tion of Ulysses in the tragedy of “ Scylla,°” and the speech of Menalippe; and the example of anomalous manners in-the Iphigenia in Aulis.. For Iphigenia 2 This is very Euripidean gallantry. Compare Aristoph.
-.8 This is observed, to show the consistence of this first pre- cept with the next. The manners must be drawn as good as may be, consistently with the observance of propriety, with respect to the general character of different sexes, ages, condi- tions, etc. It might have been objected—* You say the charac- ter must be good. But suppose the poet has to represent, for instance, a slave?—the character of slaves in general is noto- riously bad.’’—The answer is,—any thing may be good in its kind. Twining.
4 This is very trivial, compared with Horace’s description of the manners suited to different characters. Cf. Ars Poet 5 Of the Scylla nothing is known.—Some fragments remain of “ Menalippe the Wise,” (for this was the title,) a tragedy of Euripides, the subject of which is a curiosity. Menalippe was delivered of two children, the fruits of a stolen amour with Neptune. Τὸ conceal her shame, she hid them in her father’s cow-house; where he found them, and being less of a philoso- pher than his daughter, took them for a monstrous production of. some of his cows, and ordered them to be burned. Gis daughter, in order to save them, without exposing herself, en- ters into a long physical argument, upon the principles of Anaz- agoras, to cure her father of his unphilosophical prejudices about monsters and portentous births, and to convince him that these infants might be the natural children of his cows. Twining.
- cHaP. xv.] ’ POETIC: 437 supplicating does not at all resemble the Iphigenia in the latter part of the tragedy. It is requisite, how- ever,-in the manners as well as in the combination of the incidents, always to investigate, either the ne- cessary or the probable; so that such a person should say or do such things, either necessarily or probably; and that it be necessary or probable, that this thing should. be done after that. It is evident, therefore, 7. _that the solutions of fables ought to happen from the © fable itself, and not as in the “ Medea,®” from the machinery, and in the tragedy called the “Tliad,”. from the particulars respecting the sailing away [from Troy’]. But we must employ machinery in things which are external to the drama, which either hap- pened before, and which it is not possible for men to know, or which happened afterwards, and require to be previously foretold and announced. For we ascribe to the gods the power of seeing all things, but we do not admit the introduction of any thing absurd in the incidents §, but if it is introduced it must be external to the tragedy; as in the “ (édipus” of Sophocles. Since, however, tragedy is an imitation _of better things, it is necessary that we should imitate good painters. For these, in giving an ap- propriate form to the image, depict the similitude, but increase the beauty®. Thus, also, it is requisite that the poet, in imitating the wrathful and the indo- lent, and those who are similarly affected in their manners, should form an example of equity, or as- perity; such as Agatho and Homer have repre- sented Achilles. These things, indeed, it is neces- sary to observe; and besides these, such perceptions of the senses as are attendant upon poetry, besides 6 Of Euripides. Medea is carried off, at the end of the tra- gedy, in a chariot drawn by flying dragons. Twining.