And those that work on iron are called braziers ', Whence Ganymede is said To pour out wine for Jove 19: Il. 20, though the gods do not drink wine. But this may also be metaphorically said. It is necessary, how- ever, when a word appears to signify something of a contrary nature, to consider how many significations it may have in the passage before us; as, a τῇ ῥ' ἔσχετο χάλκεον Ey Xos— ** There stuck the lance”?:᾽ sag" For here the word stuck implies that the lance was impeded. Of how many different senses a word may admit, one may learn thus, by a contrary manner comma is put after {wed in the second line, instead of πρὸν, the sense will be, ‘“‘ Immediately those things were made mortal which before had learnt to be immortal, and pure which be- fore were mixed.”” But if the comma is put after πρὶν instead of ζωρὰ, the sense will be, “‘ that those things which before were pure, were mixed.’’ Taylor. But see Ritter’s learned note. 16 But the ambiguity is occasioned by the word πλέων, which may either signify more than, or the greater part of. Taylor. ἔΑστρα δὲ δὴ προβέβηκε, παρῴχηκεν δὲ πλέων VUE, τῶν δύο μοιράων. 7 “ Ea potio que ex aqua et vino commixta est tamen vinum nominatur. Nove dictum φασιν εἶναι pro λέγουσιν." Ritter. 18 « Schol. in Hom. 1]. T. 283. παλαιὰ ἡ χρῆσις τοῦ χαλκὸν ὀνομάζειν τὸν σίδηρον. ἀμέλει καὶ χαλκέας τοὺς τὸν σίδηρον ἐρ- γαζομένους. Ritter. 20 ΤΊ, Y.272. This 1s consummate twaddle. See Twining and Ritter.
evap. xxv.] POETIC. 469 from what Glauco says”, [when he asserts that} “some men presuppose irrationally, and then reason from their own decision: and, having once pronounced their opinion, reprobate whatever is contrary to their [preconceived] opinion.” This was the case with re- spect to Icarius. For the multitude fancy that he was a Laconian. On this supposition, therefore, it.is ab- surd that Telemachus should not meet him, on his ar- rival at Lacedemon™. Perhaps, however, the truth is as the Cephalenians say, viz. that Ulysses married among them, and that Icadius, and not Icarius, [was his father-in-law ]. It is probable, therefore, that this objection is erroneous. In short, it is necessary to refer the impossible either to the poetry, or to that which is better, or to opinion. For, with respect to poetry, probable impossibility is more eligible, than the improbable and possible, and things should be _ such as Zeuxis™ painted. And also [we may refer the impossible] to that which is better: for it is ne- cessary that the pattern should transcend those things «which are said to be irrational. The objection, also, that something is irrational may be solved by saying, that sometimes it is not irrational; for it is probable that what is improbable may have happened. But with respect to the solution of apparent contraries, these are to be considered in the same manner as 21 This is most clumsily and indistinctly expressed.
22 See Ritter.
23 «Tn ancient days, while Greece was flourishing in liberty and arts, a celebrated painter, [Zeuwwis,| having drawn many excellent pictures for a certain free state, and been generously rewarded for his labours, at last made an offer to paint them a Helen, as a model and exemplar of the most exquisite beauty. The proposal was readily accepted, when the artist informed them, that in order to draw one Fair, it was necessary he should contemplate many. He demanded, therefore, a sight of all their finest women. The state, to assist the work, assented to his request. They were exhibited before him; he selectea the most beautiful; and from these formed his Helen, more beautiful than them all.’’—Harris’s Three Treatises, p. 216. T wining.
24 Improved nature, ideal beauty, etc., which, elsewhere, is expressed by what should be. Twining. Ritter rightly supplies τὸ ἐδύνατον δεῖ ἀνάγειν.
ἀπο 7.
470 ARISTOTLE’S foHaP. XXVE elenchi* in arguments, if the same thing [is affirmed οἱ denied], and with respect to the same thing, and after the same manner, and whether it is the same — person [who affirms and denies], and also with what reference he speaks, and what a wise man would un- 19. derstand from his words*. The reprehension [of bi τιϑας poets] on the score of improbability” and vicious sion is | Manners will be right, through which it is shown, correct. that they have without any necessity devised some- thing irrational. Thus irrationality is used [with- out any necessity | by Euripides in his Ageus, and viciousness, in the character of Menelaus, in his 20.Sum- Orestes. The reprehensions, therefore, may be de- mary: χγρᾷ from five species. For they are either made because impossibilities are introduced, or absurdities, or things of evil tendency, or contraries, or as errors committed against the rectitude of art. But the so- lutions may be surveyed from the above-mentio number; for they are twelve.?5] - CHAP. XXVI.
1. Re- One may, however, question whether epic or tragic ee ae imitation is the more excellent. For if that imitatragicand tion is the better which is less troublesome to the epic Imi- gnectator, and such an imitation pertains to better tation,. ar...spectators, that which imitates every thing is evi- dently attended with molestation. For, as if the spectators will not perceive what is acted without the addition of much movement!, they make great 361 have followed Ritter, who has done much for this awk- ward heap of tautologies.
27 Surely the words καὶ ἀλογία καὶ μοχθηρία are corrupt or interpolated.
28 The reader who regards his own ease, will, I believe, do well to take this for granted. If, however, he has any desire to try the experiment, he may read my NoTE on this passage; and I wish it may answer to him. Twining.
1 Though Aristotle instances in gesture only, the objection gesticulations; just as bad players on the flute turn themselves round, when it is requisite to imitate the action of the discus; or when they sing of Scylla, draw to themselves’ the coryphzus, or leader of the band. Such, then, is tragedy, as the modern actors are in the estimation of their predecessors*. Hence, Mynis- cus called Callipides an ape, in consequence of carry- ing his imitation to a great excess. And there was also a similar opinion respecting Pindar [the player ]. But as these latter actors are to the former, so is the whole art of tragedy to the epopee. They say, there- fore, that the epopee is calculated for hearers of the vetter sort, 0: which account it does not require scenery; but that tragedy is calculated for the vul- gar. Hence, tragic imitation, which is troublesome to the spectator, will evidently be inferior to epic imitation.
In the first place, however, this accusation does not pertain to the poet, but the actor; since it is possible in reciting epic poetry to overdo action, as Sosistratus did, and singing likewise, as Mnastheus of Opus did. In the next place, neither is all motion to be despised, since neither is every kind of dancing, no doubt, extended to the whole imitative representation of the theatre, including the stage and scenery, by which place is imitated, and the dresses, which are necessary to complete the imitation of the persons. Twining.
2 “Ἕλκοντες τὸν Κορυφαῖον--- ΤῸ imitate Scylla,—“ naves in saxa trahentem,’’ as Virgil has expressed it. But it is not easy to see how the performer, at least while he was playing, could well spare a hand for this operation.—This was even worse than what we call humouring a catch; when, for instance, a singer who is performing Purcell’s “ Fie, nay prithee, John,” —thinks it necessary to collar his neighbour. Twining.
Sheridan has burlesqued this habit of “suiting the action” with admirable humour in “ the Critic.” Sir Christopher Hat- ton turning out his toes, Lord Burleigh shaking his head, and Tilburnia going mad in white satin, are among the best of his innumerable facetie on tke subject. Compare also “the Re- hearsal,”” Act 1, where Bayes instructs the Thunder and Light- ning how to express their noisy and rapid powers by suitable action.
3 The “decline of the drama,” then, was a subject of com- piaint at Athens, as well as ἜΝ I 2. Com- plaints re- specting actors.
3. But the whole question rather pertains to the actor than the poet.
but only that which is bad; and hence Callipedes was blamed, as others now are for imitating light women‘, Further still, tragedy, in the same manner as the epopee, may fulfil its purpose without gesture; for by reading, it is manifest what kind of thing it is, If, therefore, it is in other respects better, it is ποῦ ne- cessary that it should be accompanied [by motion and gesture]. In the next place, tragedy has every thing which the epopee possesses. For it may use metre, and it has also music and scenery, as no small parts, through which the pleasure it produces is most ap- parent. To which may be added, that it possesses perspicuity, both when it is read, and when it is - acted. The end, too, of its imitation is confined in less extended limits. For being crowded into a nar- rower compass, it becomes more pleasing than if it were diffused through a long period of time. Thus, for instance, if one were to put the Cidipus of Sophocles into as many verses as the Iliad, [it would 6. be less pleasing]. Again, the imitation of the epopee has less unity [than tragic imitation]; of which this is an indication, that from any kind of [epic] imita- tion many tragedies may be produced. Hence, if he who writes an epic poem should choose a fable per- fectly one, the poem would necessarily either appear short, as if curtailed, or if it should be accompanied with length of metre, it would seem to be languid’. But if he should compose one fable from many fables, I mean, if the poem should consist of many aetions, it would not possess unity. ‘Thus, the Iliad and Odyssey contain many such parts, which of them- selves possess magnitude, though these poems are composed, as much as possible, in the most excellent 4 Taylor has gone fearfully astray in his version, “ for πού imitating free women’’! The negative particle belongs to the adjective. Twining observes: ‘‘as no actresses were admitted on the Greek stage, their capital actors must frequently have appeared in female parts, such as Electra, Iphigenia, Medea, etc. This is sufficiently proved by many passages of ancient authors; and among others, by a remarkable story of Polus, an eminent Greek Tragic actor, told by Aulus Gellius.”
CHAP. XXVI-] POETIC. 473 manner, and are most eminently the imitation of one action. If, therefore, tragedy excels in all these 7. particulars, and besides this, in the work of art, (for neither tragic nor epic imitation ought to produce a casual pleasure, but that which has been stated, ) it is evident that it will be more excellent than the epopee, in consequence of attaining its end ina greater degree. And thus much concerning tragedy, 8. and the epopee, as to themselves, their species, and their parts, their number, and their difference, what the causes are of their being good or bad, and also concerning the objections which may be made to them, and the solutions of the objections.
QUESTIONS ON ARISTOTLE’S POETIC, CHAP, I.
Exptalin Aristotle’s notion of imitation.
To what different arts does it apply?
In what manner do these themselves differ?
How do you prove that Poetry is an art?
In what does the poet agree with, in what differ from, the historian?
What does Aristotle say on the subject of metre?
CHAP. II.
What are the objects of (dramatic) imitation, and what. in- ference respecting moral character is thence derived?: What parallel does Aristotle draw between the conduct of painters and poets in this respect? How also do tragedy a Pe ea differ?
Explain the three modes of imitation. State the traditional derivations of tragedy and comedy. Are they to be regarded as genuine? | CHAP. IV.
Give Aristotle’s views on the physical and sensitive causes of poetry.
How did men’s dispositions actuate their choice of subject and metre ἢ Were all Homer’s poems of a grave cast?
What analogy do his works respectively bear to tragedy and comedy?
What changes took place in the different styles?
Trace the progress of tragedy from its earliest elements, and explain the respective improvements made by Adschylus and Sophocles.
What does Aristotle say on the natural affinity of metres to ordinary life?
CHAP. ν᾿, With what restrictions are we to regard comedy as μίμησις φαυλοτέρων ὃ Define τὸ γελοῖον.
Are the changes through which comedy has passed as well known as those of tragedy, and what appears to have been the reason?
What do you read of Epicharmus, Phormis, and Crates?
Trace the analogy between the epopee and tragedy.
CHAP, VI.
Define tragedy, μελοποιΐα, λέξις, rhythm, harmony, and ὄψες.
Enumerate the parts of tragedy that constitute its quality.
What remark does Aristotle make respecting the manners of modern tragedies?
What parts of tragedy convey most delight?
What fault is usually committed?
Define διανοία.
CHAP. VII. Define a poetic whole, and its parts, How is beauty concerned therein? What limits does Aristotle set to the length of tragedy ' CHAP. VIII.
Define fable. What errors in construction do poets now commit? What events are the best to select?
CHAP. IX, Should a poet narrate real events? if not, what kind are best suited?
But may not real and probable events sometimes coincide?
Define poetical probability.
What is the superiority of Poetry over history?
Define universal.
What are the subjects most popular in tragedy?
Of what must the poet be a contriver?
Which fables and simple actions are worst?
Define them.
What kind of perfect actions must be imitated in tragedy?
Give an example of accidents seeming to proceed from design.
CHAP. X. Define a simple action.
CHAP. XI. Define revolution and discovery, and give some examples CHAP. XII.
Give an account of pathos. Describe the parts of a tragedy according to its guantity.
CHAP. XIII.
Give some examples of the best modes of exciting pity and terror, and compare their respective merits.
What character does Aristotle give of Euripides?
Is this remark meant to apply to his Poetry as a whole?
What kind of tragedy is most popular?
Through what reason?
476 QUESTIONS ON CHAP. XIV.
Can terror and pity be excited by stage appointments? Is it well to depend upon this means?
Why not? > What actions are truly pitiable, and why?
Give different instances.
CHAP. XV.
What are the four requisites of manners?
Give some examples.
How ought the λύσεις of fables to arise ὃ Where should art aim at matters extraneous to the drama? Whom should we imitate, and how?
Does Aristotle make reference here to any other treatise?
CHAP. XVI.
Give some examples of different recognitions. Which does Aristotle consider the best?
CHAP. XVII.
How will the poet be best enabled to realize the objects ot actions he imitates?
Who are best capable of persuading, and what inference do you thence derive respecting the character of a poet ἢ What plan should be adopted in setting about a subject?
What follows?
Give Aristotle’s example from Euripides.
‘What do you mean by poetic madness?
What is the character of episodes in epic and tragic Poetry respectively? | CHAP. XVIII. Explain the δέσις and λύσις. Give some illustrations. CHAP. XIX.
What do you read concerning λέξις and διανοία ἢ What knowledge properly belongs to the poet? How did Protagoras accuse Homer?
Was it justly?
CHAP. XX. Give an account of the parts of speech.
CHAP. XXI.
Explain and illustrate the different kinds of words, and collect what has been said in the Rhetoric on the same subject.
CHAP. XXII.
What are the virtues of diction? How are they respectively obtained? _ Quote some of the illustrations. Does this chapter appear to be genuine?
CHAP. XXIII.
What are the requisites of narrative Poetry?
In what does its form differ from that of history? Illustrate this by an example.
What was Homer’s conduct in respect to episodes? What do you know of the Cyprica, the Little Iliad?
CHAP. XXIV.
Describe the forms of epopee, and their similarity to tho of tragedy. Collect all that Aristotle says of Homer’s excellence in the different departments of poetry. ᾿ What do you read of the heroic metre? Explain Aristotle’s views respecting possibility and pro- bability.
: CHAP. XXV. ‘Give a few specimens of the a:swering <ritical objections CHAP. XXVI. Compare the respective merits of epic and tragic Poetry.
ANALYSIS OF ARISTOTLE’S POETIC, WITH THE ORIGINAL DEFINITIONS.* 1.—1. On Poetry in general, its species and parts.
2. Now, all Poetry is an imitation, as also flute and cithern playing, but they differ either in the means, the objects, or th« manner of their imitation.
6. Epopee imitates μόνον τοῖς λόγοις ψιλοῖς 7} τοῖς μέτροις, either simple or mixed. 7 7. But custom has falsely connected the name of poet with the metre only, and not with their manner of imitation, as is shown in the case of Empedocles and Cheremon.
10, Dithyrambs, nomes, tragedy, and comedy employ all the means of imitation, but some do so all together, others separately.
IIl.—1 But since actions are the objects of imitation, the characters must be bad or good, κακίᾳ γὰρ καὶ ἀρετῇ ra ἤθη διαφέρουσι πάντες; and hence men must be imitated either as they are, or under a more exalted or more contemptible view, as in the respective paintings of Dionysius, Polygnotus, and Pauson. The same thing holds good in other arts, and in Poetry, as is shown by Cleophon, Homer, and Hegemon re- spectively.
4, And hence is the difference of tragedy and comedy, ἡ μὲν γὰρ χείρους, ἡ δὲ βελτίους μιμεῖσθαι βούλεται τῶν νῦν.
IIi.—1. The third difference is as to the manner of imi- tation. For the poet may imitate the same object, and by the same means, but he may do so either, 1. 7” narrative, i. 6. by * As I follow the text of Ritter, no analysis will of course be made of such passages as are satisfactorily proved, by this scholar, to be spurious, especially when such passages are but an analysis of what has been already said in the Rhetoric, personating other characters, or in his own person. 11. Or he may represent πάντας we πράττοντας Kal ἐνεργοῦντας.
2. Since, then, there are three differences of imitation (ἐν οἷς τε καὶ ἃ καὶ ὥς), Sophocles agrees with Homer, because both imitate τοὺς σπουδαίους, but with Aristophanes, ὅτι τοὺς πράττοντας. [Hence the Dorians lay an etymological claim to the invention of the Drama and Comedy, δράματα, ὅτι μιμοῦν- ται δρῶντας, κωμφδοὶ, τῇ κατὰ κώμας πλάνῃ ἀτιμαζόμενοι ἐκ τοῦ ἄστεως.
IV. Two natural causes of Poetry. 1. To imitate is the peculiar faculty and pleasure of man, as is evident from his taste for images, pictures, etc., the resemblance even of the worst objects causing satisfaction. And this results from the pleasure felt in learning and forming conclusions.
6. 11. Moreover, rhythm and harmony are equally natural to us, and τὰ μέτρα μόρια τῶν ῥυθμῶν ἐστί.
Poetry, therefore, gradually arose from the combined ex- ertions of οἱ μιμητικοὶ καὶ οἱ μετρικοί.
7. And of these men οἱ σεμνότεροι τὰς καλὰς ἐμιμοῦντο πράξ- εις καὶ τὰς τῶν τοιούτων, οἱ δὲ εὐτελέστεροι τὰς τῶν φαύλων, the one writing hymns and encomia, the others satires, of which Homer’s Margites was the earliest known.
8. Iambic was the fit metre for vituperation. But Homer, by substituting τὸ γελοῖον for ψόγος, suggested comedy, for his Margites has the same relation to comedy as the Iliad to tragedy. 10. And the heroic and vituperative poets respec- tively became τραγωδιδάσκαλοι and κωμωδοποιοί.
11. Tragedy and comedy were at first ἀυτοσχεδιαστικαί, the one resulting ἀπὸ τῶν ἐξαρχόντων τὸν διθύραμβον, but the other ἀπο τῶν τὰ φαλλικά; they then gradually increased, as im- provements presented themselves.
15. A&schylus added a second actor, and gave the pre-emi- nence to the dialogue (see, however, the note). Sophocles added a third, and introduced scenic decoration. While tragedy remained in its simple, satyric state, the Trochaic metre was employed; but, on its improvement, the Iambic, as being the most naturally adapted to every-day discourse. The ‘Trochaic Poetry was σατυρικὴ καὶ ὀρχηστικωτερὴ, but τὸ ἰσμβεῖον μάλιστα λεκτικὸν τῶν μέτρων.
15. Episodes were also multiplied, and the other parts im- proved.
480 ANALYSIS OF V.—1. Κωμῳδία ἐστὶ μίμησις φαυλοτέρων, but not κατὰ πᾶ- σαν κακίαν, but τὸ γελοῖον, which is a part τοῦ αἰσχροῦ. For γελοῖον is defined ἁμάρτημά τι καὶ αἶσχος ἀνώδυνον καὶ οὐ φθαρτικόν.
2. The progress of comedy, from its being for a long time unpopular, is unknown, but its poets are known from the time when it began to possess any form.
3. The inventor of masks, dialogues, and an increased num- ber of actors is likewise unknown. But Epicharmus and Phormis of Sicily first invented comic fables, but Crates was the first Athenian who began ἀφέμενος τῆς ἰαμβικῆς ἰδέας καθόλου ποιεῖν λόγους Kal μύθους, to introduce dialogues and plots of a regular character.
4, Tragic Poetry and epic agree in imitating rove σπου- daiove, but epic differs from it τῷ τὸ μέτρον ἁπλοῦν ἔχειν καὶ ἀπαγγελίαν εἶναι, and also τῷ μήκει. For epopee is ἀόριστος τῷ χρόνῳ, but tragedy ὑπὸ μίαν περίοδον ἡλίου. But at first there was no such restriction.
5. As all the parts of epic Poetry are found in tragic, (but not vice versd,) a judge of the former will be a judge of the latter also.
VI.—2. Tragedy is defined to be μέμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας καὶ τελείας, μέγεθος ἐχούσης, ἡδυσμένῳ λόγῳ, χωρὶς ἑκάστου τῶν εἰδῶν ἐν τοῖς μορίοις δρώντων, καὶ ov δ ἐπαγγελίας, ἀλλὰ δι ἐλέου καὶ φόβου περαίνουσα τὴν τῶν τοιούτων παθημάτων κάθαρ- σιν. And ἡδυσμένος λόγος is ὁ ἔχων ῥυθμὸν καὶ ἁρμονίαν καὶ μέλος. But by χωρὶς τῶν εἰδῶν, Aristotle means τὸ διὰ μέτρων ἔνια μόνον περαίνεσθαι, καὶ πάλιν ἕτερα διὰ μέλους.
4. And since tragedy imitates action, the necessary parts of it must be ὁ τῆς ὄψεως κόσμος, μελοποιΐα, and λέξις,Ξεεὴ τῶν μέτρων σύνθεσις.
5. And since action cannot exist but by ἦθος and διανοία, which are its two causes, καὶ κατὰ ravrac καὶ τυγχάνουσι Kai ἀποτυγχάνουσι πάντες" ἔστι δὲ τῆς μὲν πράξεως ὁ μῦθος μίμησις. 6. For he defines μῦθος to be ἡ σύνθεσις τῶν πραγμάτων" and ἤθη, καθ᾽ ἃ ποιούς τινας εἶναι φαμὲν τοὺς πράττοντας" and διάνοια, ἐν ὅσοις λέγοντες ἀποδεικνύουσί τι, ἣ καὶ ἀποφαίνονται γνώμην.
7. Hence there are six parts of tragedy, as far as its guality is concerned, μῦθος, ἤθη, λέξις, διανοία, ὄψις, μελοποιία" οἷς μὲν γὰρ μιμοῦνται, δύο μέρη ἐστὶν" ὡς δὲ μιμοῦνται, ἕν" ἃ δὲ μιμοῦν- ται, τρία. καὶ παρὰ ταῦτα οὐδὲν.
9. The most important is ἡ τῶν πραγμάτων σύστασις, for tragedy imitates actions, not men, and manners only as far as they are involved by actions. Hence action is the τέλος of tragedy.
11, For it may exist without manners, but cannot without action: the later authors are imperfect in manners.
12. Nor would a whole string of well mannered incidents please so well as a regular plot.
13. And, moreover, ra μέγιστα οἷς ψυχαγωγεῖ ἣ rpayydia, τοῦ μύθου μέρη ἐστὶν, aire περιπετείαι καὶ ἀναγνωρίσεις. And men arrive at perfection in diction and manners, sooner than in constructing plots. [The rest of this chapter is a repeti- tion, and is inconsistent with Aristotle’s own ideas in other places. See Ritter. ] Vil.—2. From the previous definition, κεῖται ἡμῖν τὴν τραγῳδίαν τελείας καὶ ὅλης πράξεως εἶναι μίμησιν ἐχούσης τι μέγεθος" for there may be ὅλον μηδὲν ἔχον μέγεθος. And ὅλον 15 τὸ ἔχον ἀρχὴν καὶ μέσον καὶ τελευτήν, 8. but ἀρχὴ, ὃ αὐτὸ μὲν ἐξ: ἀνάγκης μὴ μετ᾽ ἄλλο ἐστί" μετ᾽ ἐκεῖνο δ᾽ ἕ ἕτερον πέφυκεν εἶναι ἢ “γίνεσθαι, and τελευτὴ, τοὐναντίον, ὃ αὐτὸ μετ᾽ ἄλλο πέ- τ φυκεν εἶναι, i ἐξ ἀνάγκης, ἢ ὡς ἐπιτοπολύ" μετὰ δὲ Τοῦτο ἄλλο οὐδέν, and μέσον, καὶ αὐτὸ μετ᾽ ἄλλο, καὶ per’ ἐκεῖνο ἕτερον. To these definitions the poet must conform.
4. Again, whatever is beautiful, must not only have a pro- per arrangement of its parts, but must be of a proper magni-. tude, neither too large for its parts to be comprehended, nor too small.
- 7. The proper μέγεθος of tragedy i is ἐν ὅσῳ κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς, a τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἐφεξῆς γιγνομένων, συμβαίνει εἰς εὐτυχίαν ἐκ δυστυχίας, ἢ ἢ ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυχίαν μεταβάλλειν.
VIII.—1. Μῦθος is one, not ἐὰν περὶ ἕνα ἦ, as the authors of Heracleids, etc. have wrongly supposed, but because it is the imitation of one entire action, complete in all its parts.
IX.—1. Moreover it is not the poet’s province to relate ra γινόμενα, but οἷα ἂν γένοιτο, καὶ τὰ δυνατὰ κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς, ἣ τὸ, ἀναγκαῖον. For this is the proper difference between the historian and poet, not the use of metre.
3. And poetry is more philosophical than history, because it regards τὰ καθόλου, but history τὰ καθ᾽ ἕκαστον.
. 4, Ἔστι δὲ καθόλου μὲν, τῷ ποίῳ τὰ ποῖ ἅττα συμβαίνει λέ- γειν, ij πράττειν κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς, ἣ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον. οὗ στοχάζεται ἡ 482 ANALYSIS OF ποίησις ὀνόματα ἐπιτιθεμένη" τὰ δὲ καθ᾽ ἕκαστον, τ΄ Αλκιβιάξδης ἔπραξεν, ἣ τί ἔπαθεν.
5. Hence comic writers use names of their own invention, but tragedians τῶν γενομένων ὀνομάτων ἀντέχονται, at least one or two in each play.
8. But it is not necessary that a poet should confine him- self to τοὺς παραδεδομένους μύθους, but he should be ποιητὴς μᾶλλον τῶν μύθων, ἣ τῶν μέτρων, inasmuch as he is ποιητὴς κατὰ τὴν μίμησιν" 9. μιμεῖται δὲ τὰς πράξεις; even if he write τὰ γενόμενα, he is no less a poet.
10. Of simple plots or actions the episodic are the worst. And ἐπεισοδιώδης μῦθος is that, ἐν ᾧ τὰ ἐπεισόδια per’ ἄλληλα οὔτ᾽ εἰκὸς, οὔτ᾽ ἀνάγκη εἶναι, and such are made by bad poets, δι’ αὐτοὺς, but by good ones, διὰ τοὺς ὑποκριτάς.
12. And since οὗ μόνον τελείας ἐστὶ πράξεως ἡ μίμησις, ἀλλὰ καὶ φοβερῶν καὶ ἐλεεινῶν, that which is wonderful must also have some appearance of cause, rather than of being ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου καὶ τῆς τύχης, for even casual events are most won- derful when they seem to be from design.
X.—1. Plots, like actions, are either ἁπλοὶ or πεπλεγμένοι.
2. ἁπλῆ πρᾶξις, ἧς γενομένης, ὥσπερ ὥρισται, συνεχοῦς καὶ μιᾶς, ἄνευ περιπετείας ἣ ἀναγνωρισμοῦ ἡ μετάβασις γίνεται" but πεπλεγμένη, ἐξ ἧς μετὰ ἀναγνωρισμοῦ, ἣ περιπετείας, ἢ ἀμφοῖν, ἡ μετάβασίς ἐστι.
3. And these should be the necessary consequences of what has gone before, διαφέρει yap πολὺ γίνεσθαι τάδε διὰ τάδε, ἢ μετὰ τάδε.
XIL—1. Ἔστι δὲ περιπέτεια μὲν ἡ εἰς τὸ ἐναντίον τῶν πραττο- μένων μεταβολὴ, κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς, 7) ἀναγκαῖον.
2. ᾿Αναγνώρισις δ᾽ ἐστὶν, ὥσπερ καὶ τοὔνομα σημαίνει, ἐξ ἀγ- voiac εἰς γνῶσιν μεταβολὴ, ἣ εἰς φιλίαν, 7) ἔχθραν τῶν πρὸς εὐτυχίαν 7} δυστυχίαν ὡρισμένων. καλλίστη δὲ ἀναγνώρισις, ὅταν ἅμα περιπέτειαι γίνωνται.
3. There are also others, but the above is best, as pro- ducing ἔλεον ἣ φόβον.
5. And since discoveries are relative, they are sometimes of one, sometimes of both the persons.
XII. [ Of doubtful authority. The following, however, are the definitions of the parts of quantity. 1. πρόλογος, μέρος ὅλον τραγῳδίας τὸ πρὸ χοροῦ παρόδου. 2. ἐπεισόδιον, μέρος ὅλον τραγῳδίας, τὸ μεταξὺ ὅλων χορικῶν μελῶν. 8. ἔξοδος, μέρος ~~ ἕλον τραγῳδίας, μεθ᾽ ὃ οὐκ ἔστι χοροῦ μέλος. 4. But of the chorus, πάροδος, ἣ πρώτη λέξις ὅλου χοροῦ. And στάσιμον, μέλος χοροῦ, τὸ ἄνευ ἀναπαίστου καὶ τροχαίου. 5. κόμμος, θρῆ- νος κοινὸς χοροῦ καὶ ἀπὸ σκηνῆς.
XIII.—2. The poet should aim at a plot that is πεπλεγμένη, and φοβερῶν καὶ ἐλεεινῶν μιμητική. He should not represent τοὺς ἐπιεικεῖς Changing from happiness to misery, οὐ yap φοβε- poy, οὐδὲ ἐλεεινὸν τοῦτο, ἀλλὰ μιαρόν ἐστιν, nor yet the con- - trary, for the fall of the wicked does not excite pity or fear, = but only τὸ φιλάνθρωπον.
3. The best subject for tragedy is ὁ μήτε ἀρετῇ διαφέρων, καὶ δικαιοσύνῃ, μήτε διὰ κακίαν καὶ μοχθηρίαν μεταβάλλων εἰς τὴν δυστυχίαν, ἀλλὰ δι ἁμαρτίαν τινὰ τῶν ἐν μεγάλῃ δόξῃ ὄντων καὶ εὐτυχίᾳ.
4. Hence ἀνάγκη ἄρα τὸν καλῶς ἔχοντα μῦθον ἁπλοῦν εἶναι μᾶλλον ἢ διπλοῦν, ὥσπερ τινές φασι, καὶ μεταβάλλειν οὐκ εἰς εὐτυχίαν ἐκ δυστυχίας, ἀλλὰ τοὐναντίον ἐξ εὐτυχίας εἰς δυστυ- χίαν, μὴ διὰ μοχθηρίαν, ἀλλὰ Ov ἁμαρτίαν μεγάλην, ἢ οἵου εἴρη- ται, ἢ βελτίονος μᾶλλον ἣ χείρονος. 5. Thus the plots are confined to the adventures of a few families.
6. Euripides, from his plots ending unhappily, is unduly blamed.
7. But a happy end ‘pleases the weak feelings of the spec- tators, as also does the διπλῇ σύστασις, where the play ends in a contrary result to the good and bad.
8. But this is better suited to comedy.
XIV.—1. Scenic decoration may excite terror and pity, but they should rather arise ἐξ αὐτῆς τῆς συστάσεως τῶν πραγμάτων, Which is far better, and more suitable to the poet’s art.
2. And ὄψις rather produces τὸ τερατῷδες.
4. Now, terrible actions must be either between friends, enemies, or persons indifferent. But if an enemy kill an enemy, οὐδὲν ἐλεεινὸν, as also with indifferent persons. But it is between friends and relations that such events become piteous. j 5. Now, we must not essentially alter the received subjects of tragedy, but we must invent new ones, and use the old judiciously.
6. Now, this may be done in the following ways: 1. εἰδύτας καὶ γιγνώσκοντας, as Medea. 2. ἀγνοοῦντας τὸ δεινὸν, εἶθ᾽ 484 ANALYSIS OF ὕστερον ἀναγνωρίσαι τὴν “φιλίαν, as Cidipus. 3. τὸν μέλ- λοντα ποιεῖν τι τῶν ἀνηκέστων δ ἀγνοίαν, ἀναγνωρίσαι πρὶν ποιῆσαι.
7. The worst way is γινώσκοντα “μελλῆσαι, καὶ μὴ πρᾶξαι, for it is ἀπαθὲς. Βέλτιον δὲ τὸ ἀγνοοῦντα μὲν πρᾶξαι, πράξαντα δὲ ἀναγνωρίσαι. τὸ, τε γὰρ μιαρὸν οὗ πρόσεστι, καὶ ἡ ἀναγνώ- ρισις ἐκπληκτικόν. κράτιστον δὲ τὸ τελευταῖον, AS in the Iphi- genia in Tauris.
11. Hence tragedy is confined to a few familios,.& ὅσαις τὰ τοιαῦτα συμβέβηκε πάθη.
XV. Four requisites of τὰ ἤθη. 1. ὅπως ane ἦ. ἕξει ee ἦθος μὲν, ἐὰν, ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη, ποιῇ φανερὰν ὁ λόγος, ἢ ἡ πρᾶξις προαίρεσίν τινα" φαῦλον μὲν, ἐὰν φαύλην᾽ χρηστὸν δὲ, ἐὰν χρηστήν. ἔστι δὲ ἐν ἑκάστῳ YéI% 2. τὰ ἁρμόττοντα.
3. τὸ ὅμοιον.
4, τὸ ὁμαλόν.
6. Furthermore, χρὴ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἤθεσιν, ὥσπερ! καὶ ἐν τῇ τῶν πραγμάτων συστάσει, ἀεὶ ζητεῖν, ij τὸ ἀναγκαῖον, ij τὸ εἰκός. 7. And hence the development of a plot should arise out of the plot itself, not out of the machinery, which should be confined to ra ἔξω τοῦ δράματος, things happening before or after the time of action. And ἄλογον μηδὲν εἶναι ἐν τοῖς πράγμασιν," but if so, ἔξω τῆς τραγωδίας.
8. Like good painters, we must improve upon the original we imitate.
XVI. [ Doubtful. The four kinds of discovery are, 1. ἡ διὰ τῶν σημείων, and these are either σύμφυτα, or ἐπίκτητα, which are the worst. 2. ai πεποιημέναι ὑπὸ τοῦ ποιητοῦ, also οὐκ ἄτεχνοι. 8. διὰ μνήμης. 4. ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ.
8. But the best is ἡ ἐξ αὐτῶν τῶν πραγμάτων, τῆς ἐκπλήξεως γιγνομένης δ εἰκότων. Next to it, ἡ ἐκ συλλογισμοῦ. ] XVII.—1. The poet should put himself as much as possi- ble in the place of a spectator.
2. And of an actor likewise, for he will best express agita- tion who feels it, δι ὃ ἐυφυοῦς ἡ ποιητική ἐστιν ἢ μανικοῦ.
3. He should ‘first draw out a general sketch of the subject, then add the episodes, taking care that they belong properly to the subject. They are short in tragedy, but serve te lengthen out an epic poem.
XVIII. [Doubtful. Every tragedy consists of two parts: 1. &€orc, ἣ ἀπ᾿ ἀρχῆς μέχρι τούτου τοῦ μέρους ὃ Ecxardr ἐστιν, ἐξ οὗ μεταβαίνει εἰς εὐτυχίαν.
2. λύσις, ἡ ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρχῆς τῆς μεταβάσεως μέχρι τέλους.
Four kinds of tragedy: 1. πεπλεγμένη, ἧς τὸ ὅλον ἐστὶ περι- πέτεια καὶ ἀναγνώρισις. 2. παθητική" οἷον, οἵ τε Αἴαντες, καὶ. οἱ Ἰξίονες. 8. ἠθική" οἷον, ai Φθιώτιδες και ὁ Πηλεύς. 4. οἷον, αἵ τε Φόρκιδες καὶ Προμηθεὺς, καὶ ὅσα ἐν ἅδῃ, with all which the poet should be more or less acquainted, for the public now expect excellence in all the different kinds.
3. Tragedies are the same or different, not according to the subject, but the δέσις and λύσις. Many poets complicate well, but develope badly. | 4, We must be careful μὴ ποιεῖν ἐποποιΐκον (i. 6. πολύ- pvdov) σύστημα τραγφδίαν.
7. Moreover, the chorus must be considered as one of the persons of the drama, and be a part of the whole, not arbi- trarily introduced.
XIX. The διανοία has been treated of in the Rhetoric, and includes τό, re ἀποδεικνύναι, καὶ τὸ λύειν, Kal τὸ πάθη παρασκευ- ἀζειν" οἷον, ἔλεον, ἢ φόβον, ἢ ὀργὴν, καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, καὶ ἔτι͵ μέγεθος, καὶ σμικρότητα. The poet must therefore draw from the same sources as the orator, except that in the drama things must appear to be such ἄνευ διδασκαλίας, τὰ δὲ ἐν τῷ λόγῳ ὑπὸ τοῦ λέγοντος παρασκευάζεσθαι, καὶ παρὰ τὸν λόγον γίγνεσθαι. ͵ 4, The figures of speech concern the actor, rather than the poet, οἷον τί ἐντολὴ, καὶ τί εὐχὴ, καὶ διήγησις, καὶ ἀπειλὴ, καὶ ἐρώτησις, καὶ ἀπόκρισις, καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον. ᾿ XX. [This chapter is an useless scholium. The proper divisions and definitions will be found in the Rhetoric.
XXI.—1. A word is either ἁπλοῦν, ὁ μὴ ἐκ σημαινόντων σύγκειται, OY διπλοῦν, either ἐκ σημαίνοντος καὶ ἀσήμου, OY ἐκ σημαινόντων. ‘The following are the different kinds.
; Se “ Sometimes the same word, 2. 1. κύριον, ᾧ χρῶνται ἕκαστοι.
8. IL γλῶτταν, ᾧ ἕτεροι. in reference to different people, may be both.
4. Il. μεταφορὰ, ὀνόματος ἀλλοτρίου ἐπιφορὰ, ἢ ἀπὸ γένους ἐπὶ εἶδος, ἢ ἀπὸ εἴδους ἐπὶ γένος" ἢἣ ἀπὸ εἴδους ἐπὶ εἶδος, ἢ κατὰ τὸ ἀνάλογον.
9. Iv. πεποιημένον, ὃ ὅλως μὴ καλούμενον ὑπό τινων, αὐτὸς τέθεται ὁ ποιητῆς.
486 ANALYSIS OF 10. ν. ἐπεκτεταμένον, ἐὰν φωνήεντι μακοοτέρῳ κεχρημένον, ἢ τῷ οἰκείῳ, ἢ συλλαβῇ ἐμβεβλημένῃ.
V1. ἀφῃρημένον, ἂν ἀφῃρημένον ἦ τι, ἣ αὐτοῦ, ἣ ἐμβεβλημένου.
vu. ἐξηλλαγμένον, ὅταν τοῦ ὀνομαζομένου, τὸ μὲν καταλείπῃ, τὸ δὲ ποιῇ.
[The remainder is both spurious and incorrect. ] XXII.—1. The virtues of λέξις are, > σαφῆ εἶναι κὰι μὴ ταπεινήν. ἐκ τῶν κυρίων ὀνομάτων. and such will be ἡ τοῖς ἕενικοὶς χρωμένη, 1. 6. γλώτταις, μεταφο- ραῖς, καὶ πᾶσ. τοῖς παρὰ τὸ κύριον. But too great a use of such words will produce an enigma or bar- barism, for the very notion of an enigma is τὸ λέγοντα ὑπάρχοντα ἀδύνατα συνάψαι.
4. Both effects are produced by a judicious use of αἱ ἐπεκ- 'ἄσεις καὶ ἀποκοπαὶ, καὶ ἐξαλλαγαὶ τῶν ὀνομάτων.
9. But a judicious use of metaphors is the greatest excel- lence of all, for it cannot be derived from another, and is a sign τῆς εὐφυΐας, τὸ γὰρ εὖ μεταφερειν, TO ὅμοιον θεωρεῖν ἐστι.
10. τὰ διπλᾶ are best suited to dithyrambs.
γλῶτται, to heroic verse. μεταφοραὶ, to Iambic.
But heroie verse admits of all these kinds. JIambic should approach as much as possible to the diction of common life.