^ The inconsistency \rhich Aristotle taxes Plato with is this, — that whereas sometimes he maintains the priority of motion to the orderiy flystem of the world, he, at other times, makes the soul, that with him is the source of motion, to be coincident with it. Cicero comments upon this Platonic riew of the nature of aoul in the first book of the Tusculan Disputations.
Ofi. VII.] OOD*S MODE OF OPERATION ILLtTSTRATED. 329 is that a cause of energy both to this and to that other. Wherefore, that which is primary is superior as a cause; for that, likewise, was a cause of a thing^s subsisting continually after a similar manner, and something else would be the cause of the subsistence of energy in a different manner; but of its subsistence always in a different manner manifestly would both be a cause. Therefore are motions, also, in this manner disposed. Why^ therefore, must we go in search of other first principles?
CHAPTER VII.»
CHAPTER VII.»
But since, also, the case stands thus — ^and, if i. Perpetual \ it be not so, things will spring from Night, ^o'eJifefeSai ^ and from all things simultaneously, and from cause of that nonentity — these aforesaid questions may be de- ™®*^®"- cided, and something always would there be that is being. moved with a motion that is incessant, but this is that which is circular; and this is evident not merely from reason, but fromi the &ct itself. Wherefore, the fii'st heaven would be eternal. There is, therefore, also something that imparts ^^ motion. Since, however, that which has motion impressed \ upon it, and which imparts motion, subsists as a medium, I there is, therefore, something which, not having motion im- i pressed upon it, yet imparts motion, which is a thing that is,' eternal, being both substance and energy. But in this way it imparts motion — I mean, that which is desirable and ': that which is intelligible' impar^ motion, whereas they are.-" not moved themselves.
But the originals of these are the same; for a ^ j^. thing that is the object of a propension is that operation an- which appears feir; but a thing which is originally JpSSSons of* selected from volition actually is fair. Now, we mind or pw — desire a thing because it appears fair, rather than p®^**°°* that a thing appears &ir because we desire it j for the perception ^ Aristotle having discussed the principles of substances cognisant by the senses, now passes on, in accordance with his transcendental method, to examine into the nature and principles of the supra-sensua!, or, as he terms them, "immobile/* substances.
' This is a most important principle. Themistius, in his commentary on this passage, remarks that, in the case of immateriJL exiBteno«% ** idem est deaiderabile atque intelligibile."
330 THE HSTAPHYSIGS OF ARISTOTLE. [fiOOK XL constitutes a first principle: but mind is moved by that which is intelligible, and the other co-ordination constitutes essentially that which is intelligible; and belonging to this is the first substance; and of this is that substance which subsists abso- lutely and according to energy. Unity, however, is not the same with <vhat is simple or absolute, for unity signifies measure; but what is absolute signifies the mode in which a thing itself subsists. But, certainly, both that which is fifiir, and that which is desirable for its own sake, belong to the same co-ordinate series, and that which is first is the most excellent invariably, or amounts to that which is ana- logous to it.
8. The final ^^^ ^^^ ^^® ^"^ cause subsists in things caufie of the that are immovable the division makes manifest S°by"hrim^" ^or the final cause of anything resides in those movable first things of which the one is in existence and the other is not. Now, that which first imparts ^motion does so as a thing that is loved;^ and that which has motion impressed upon it imparts motion to other things. If, indeed, therefore, anything is being moved, it is admis- sible, also, that it should subsist in a different manner. Wherefore, if the primary motion constitute energy also, so far forth as the thing is moved, in this way is it likewise possible that it should subsist after a different mode in place though not m substance. Since, however, there is something that imparts motion, itself being immovable, and subsisting in enei-gy, this does not by any means admit of subsisting in a different manner; for the primary motion belongs to the changes, and of this that which is circular; tut this First Mover imparts motion to that. \ ^. Of necessity, in this case, must this Immovable 4 The exist* ence of the ' First Mover constitute an entity; and so &r forth nSisMiy one ^ ^* subsists uecessarily, so fiir forth does it subsist after an excellent manner;^ and in this way constitutes a first principle. For what is necessary 'sub- * TLis remarkable passage the commentators say would be illustratod by the principles laid down in r^ard of the final cause in a treatise Utpl dyeiOov of Aristotle's, but which has not come down to us.
^ It is, indeed, remarkable to find Aristotle thus connecting the moral attributes of the Deity with what we would call God's natural •(tributes. * Vide book IV. chap y.
OH. VII.] THE PEBFUGTION OF OOD'S EZl8T£5CEi 931 sists in thus many ways: in the first plaoe, by what is accom- plished by violence, because it is contrary to free-will; and, secondly, as that without which a thing does not subsist in an excellent manner; and, thirdly, as that which could not be otherwise from what it is, but involyes an absolute 8ub« sistence. From a first principle, then, of this kind — I mean, one that is involved in the assumption of a First Mover- hath depended the Heaven and Nature.
Now, the course of life of this First Mover — ^ Etemai in like manner with our own, for a limited period happiness es- of time — is such, also, as is the most excellent; oSSe Nature for, in the present instance, doth that First Mover continue in the enjoyment of the principle of life for ever: for with uSj certainly, such a thing as this would be impossible; but not so with the First Mover, since even doth the energy or activity of this First Mover give rise unto pleasure or satisfaction on the part of such; and on this account vigi- lance, exercise of the senses, and perception in general^ are what is most productive of pleasure or satisfaction; and with hopes and recollections^ is the case the same for these reasons. Now, essential perception is the per- as weu as per- ception of that which is essentially the most frJmThe^r^*^ excellent; and that which is most essential per- logy qf the ception is the perception of that which is most ^"™*° °^'** essential. The mind, however, is cognisant of itself by par- ticipation in that which falls within the province of the miud as its object; for it becomes an object of perception by contact, and by an act of intellectual apprehension. So that, the mind and that which is an object of perception for the] mind are the same; for that which is receptive of impres-' sions from what is an object of perception, and is substance, constitutes mind: and when in possession of these impres- sions it energizes, or subsists in a condition of activity. Wherefore, that ^ seems to belong to the First Mover rather than to the mind of man; and it is a Divine prerogative ^ Because, though these may sometimes be fraught with pain and/. \ alarm, yet they are the o£Espring of a certain psychological eueigy Of\ ^ activity, and, as such, are the objects of affection.
' This principle of mounting up to the Absolute through the sub* \. Jactivity of reason is one acted upon by the MetaphysicianB ol Qermany.
S32 TUB iCETAPHtmOS OF ARISTOTLE. [fiOOK XL which the mind appears to possess: and contempktion con- stitutes what is most agreeable and excellent. If, therefore, God in this way possesses such an excellent mode of sub- sistence for ever, as we do for a limited period of duration, the Divine Nature is admirable; and if he possesses it in a more eminent degree, still more admirable will be the Divine Nature.
6. sammary of In this waj, however, is the Deity disposed as q^lSes" o?^ ^ existence, and the principle of life is, at any Jhe DiTine rate, inherent in the Deity; for the energy or ^***''** active exercise of Mind constitues life, and God * I above delineated — constitutes this energy; and essential I energy belongs to God as his best and everlasting life. Now, lour statement is this, — that the Deity is an animal that is leverlasting and most excellent in nature; so that with the IDeity life and duration are uninterrupted and eternal: for _/ this constitutes the very essence of God.
7. False Fytha- -^s many philosophers, however, as adopt the goiic soiuaon supposition — such as the Pythagoreans and menon of per- Speusippus — that what IS best and most fair is feetiou. ^^^ ^Q ljg found in the principle ^ of things, from the £a,ct that though the first principles both of plants and animals are causes, yet that what is fair and perfect resides in created things as results from these — persons, I say, who entertain these sentiments do not form their opinions cor- rectly. For seed arises from other natures that are ante- cedent and perfect, and seed is not the first thing, whereas that which is perfect is; as, for example, just as if one were to say that a man is antecedent to seed; not the man that is being generated from seed, but another from whom the seed flows. y 8. The Deity That, indeed, there exists a certain Eternal ( devoid of parts Substauce, and a Substance that is Immovable, y *nap""on8. ^^^ possesses actually a subsistence separable \ from sensibles, is evident from the statements that have been \ made above..But it also has been demonstrated that it is * The commeDtary of Themistius is worthy of quotation: " Ille, t. e. DeuB, vero qui a sapientift ne punctum quidem temporis vacat, noa habet delectationem ctcquisitam, sed ipsa delectatio est." This view of Aristotle*! of the Deity is, as far as Revelation informs us, a correct TMb false principle has reappeared in modern philosophy.
m. Vni.l THE DIVINE ESSENCE DEFINED. S33 not possible for this substance to involve any magnitude, but ' it is devoid of parts and indivisible.^ For it imparts motion throughout infinite duration; and nothing that is finite iij volves infinite potentiality. Since, however, every magnitu< is either infinite or finite, for this reason such a Substance is the above would not involve a finite magnitude, and thereforejit cannot involve an infinite magnitude, because, in short, there is no infinite magnitude in existence. But, unquestionablj also, it has been demonstrated that such is impassive aiH unalterable, for all other motions are subsequent to thai motion which is local or topical. These statements, there fore, make it evident why it is that the Deity is disposed ai to existence affcer this manner.
CHAPTER VIII.
CHAPTER VIII.
Now, whether are we to admit that there ^ ^^ ^^ ^^ exists onrSutiuUiiiCf uf iLiu deacrtpfion orjnanyl^ unity or piura- aSjnrgDrhewLmajayjsa^^ not to "^Vol"fo..
escape our notice; but we should call to re- oj first »ub- memErance also the assertions of other Philoso- phers, because, regarding the multitude of these substances, they have not spoken aught which amounts to even anything that is clear in the expression. For, indeed, the opinion ^ in regard of ideas does not involve any peculiar investigation, for the i^ersous who affirm the existence of ideas affirm that these ideas are numbei-s; and, as regards numbers, at one time they speak of them as of things that are infinite, and at other times as of things that are limited as &r as ti the decade. As to the cause, however, why it is that theit subsists a multitude of numbers^ of this kind, nothing ii expressed by them with demonstrative certainty.
^ It has ever been overlooked in all Bystems of religion, except that oi Jesus Christ, and that of the Jews, that " Qod is a Spirit, without body, parts, or passions." Vide Suicer on the words dvdpwroyAp^irai and Bt6t I mggppft, and t.hpTi « prppf fyggi experienflft^JVnm thfi-ObflfiCVJ tctual phenomena, viz. thejipavftnly bodies.
* Vide book Xii. cEaps. i and iv.
* Aristotle exposes what he conceives to be the fidladet cl ttif /\ 834 THfl mSTAFHTBIOB OP ABI8T0TLEL [BOOE Tt, \, TUftimnvov-X This, however, must we declare firom principleg Slne^necea- \^** ^"^ taken for granted, and that have been /presup- determined. For the first pnnciple, and the znotion/^^EA^original existence of entities, is a thing that is immovable both essentially and according to accident, and it imparts motion with an original and eternal and single motion. But since that which is being moved must needs derive its motion from something, and that which first imparts motion is essentially immovable, and an eternal motion derives that motion from what is eternal as a moving cause, and a single motion its motion from what is single, and since we see that beside the simple revolutionary motion of the Universe — which we say derives its motion from the first substance and that which is immovable — there are other motions that are everlasting — ^namely, those of the planets, (for eternal and unstableT^ in its movement is a body that is circular; but we have furnished demonstrations in regard of these in our Physics;)— now, I say, since the foregoing is the case, each of these motions must needs derive its motion from that which is both immovable essentially and is an Eternal Substance. For the nature of the stars consists in being a certain eternal substan%e,^ and that which impaHs motion is eternal, and is antecedent to that which has motion impressed upon it; and that which involves priority of subsistence to a substance must needs also be a substance. It is evident, there- fore, that it is expedient that there should be in existence sub- stances of this kind, such as are both naturally eternal, as well as essentially immovable and devoid of magnitude, and that, too, on account of the cause that has been stated previously. 3. Why a state- That, indeed, therefore, these substances are Sonomy™f*the ^^ existence, and which of these is primary, and number and na^ which of them is secondary, according to the same etanr*motionT" Order with the orbital motions of the stars, is evi- ls necessary, deut. But at present must we discover the multi- ^^V^hagorean system, in book I. chap, viii., and examines the tenets of the same school in book XII. chaps. vL, vii, viii. and ix.
' difrarov — *' never standing stilL** Not merely in his Physics, as the Stagyrite states, but also in his treatise " De Coelo," are the principles in regard of the relations of motion and corporeity discussed.
' This is a well-known tenet of the Peripatetics, who, according to the dogma of their master, believed the stars to be animated witk ftbair several divinities, as the body is by the souL CB.yiII.J TRANSCENDENTAL SUBSTANCES. 330 tudc of these orbital motions from that department of the philo- sophy of the mathematical sciences which is most appropriately devoted to this purpose — I mean, from astronomy;^ for this science institutes an investigation respecting a substance that is cognisant by sense, no doubt, but such as is eternal: the rest of the mathematical sciences, however, are not concerned about any substance whatever;^ for example, take the case of the science respecting numbers and geometry. That, therefore, there are numerous orbital motions belonging to the stars ^ that are being moved across the arch of heaven is evident to those who have even moderately busied them- 'selves in such inquiries. For more motions than one do each of the planetary stars assume. But as to how many tliese happen to be let us^ likewise, now declare the state» ments which some of the mathematicians make on this subject, for the purpose of understanding the point under investigation, in order that it may be possible to apprehend a certain multitude of these when mentally defined. But as to what remains we must ourselves investigate into some points, but we must make inquiries into others from persons engaged in investigations into these subjects; if, haply, anything beside the statements that alseady have been made may appear to those who are busied in these speculations: and if so, we should bestow affection upon both,^ yet yield our assent only to those who are more accurate.
^ Aristotle now enters upon what may be termed his experimentaTA or d poateriorif proof of the existence of God. He gives ns a sketch of | his doctrine of the spheres, availing himself of the labours of two! famous astronomers, Eudoxus' and Calippus. On the subject of Uie I astronomy of ihe ancients the student is referred to the article/ ' Astronomy/ in the Penny Cyclopaedia, and that in Smith's Dictionary/ of Antiquities; Pottei's Antiquities, book IL chap. xxvi.; and Pliny*! Natural History, book II. chaps, vi — xxiv.; Cicero, De Nat. lib. II. cap! xvi. — xxi., and cap. xlL et seq.; Sextus Empiricus, Contra Astrologosa ' Vide book II. chap. ii.
' "Substantise vero sequentium corpomm motrices necessario multae sunt pro numero corporum quse moventur ab eis: et had quidem per se immobiles sunt, per accidens tamen moventur perinde atque anima; neo tamen immobiles sunt sed et perpetuse." — Themittim, * <pi\fiy fihv dfju^oripovs. It frequently appears from the MetaphysicB, as well as from all of Aristotle's writings, that, though very acrimonioui in his remarks on the systems of his predecessors or contemporaries in philosophy, yet that he was ever disposed to search into theil labours, and extract from them whatever waa useful and tru«^ 396 THE METAPHYSICS OF ARISTOTLIB. f^OOK Xk f4. The artrono- Eudoxus,* in his sjstem^ therefore, laid down mio tyttem of the Orbital motion of the sun and moon to be severally in three spheres; the first of which he maintained was that of the fixed stars; and the second was that which accords with the circle which passes through the central signs of the Zodiac; and the third, with that circle which is situated obliquely in the latitude of the Zodiacal signs. Now, that oblique circle through which the moon is carried is situated in a wider latitude than that through which the sun is carried. But of the devious, or erratic, stars he makes a disposition of each in four spheres; and of these, likewise, he considers the first and second to be the same with those of the sun and moon. For the sphere of the fixed stars, according to him, is the same with that first sphere which carries along all the orbs; and that which has been arranged under this, and possesses a motion corresponding with the circle that passes through the central signs of the Zodiac, he considers a sphere common to all these heavenly bodies. He is of opinion, however, that the poles of the third sphere, which is common to all, are situated in that circle which passes through the central signs of the Zodiac, and that the motion of the fourth sphere is in an orbit declining towards the centre of the third, and that the poles of the third sphere are the proper poles of the other spheres, but that Venus and Mercury have the same poles.
Calippus,' however, sets down the same disof Caiippus?™ position of the spheres with Eudoxus, that is, the same arrangement of their mutual distances; but, with respect to their multitude, he ascribed to the star of Jupiter, as well as to that of Saturn, the same number with * Eudoxus was a famous astronomer, who flourished about the year 870 B. c.; he was a natiye of Cnidos. According to Pliny, he intro> duced into the calendar the year of three hundred and sixty-five days and a half. His works on astronomy have not come down to us, with the exception of one extant in a poetical version from the pen of Aratus.
' Calippus was a native of Cyzicus: he took up his abode in Athens, and whilst there assisted Aristotle in his astronomical researches; tha latter was engaged in rectifying the system of £udoxus. To Calippus is ascribed the invention of what is called, after him, the Calippic cycle of seventy-six years, whidi commenced B.o. 830. Viie Potter's Antir qiutiei, book XL chap. s^vi.
(. TIT!,] ASTRONOMY IN RELATION TO THEOLOGY. 837 Eudoxus; yet still he thinks that to the luminary of the sun, and to that of the moon, there should further be an- nexed two spheres — that is, supposing one likely to ftirnish a solution of the phenomena. And in regard of the other spheres of the planets, he adds one sphere to each.
It is necessary, however,^ on the supposition g Aristotle's that all, when collected together, are likely to comment upon furnish a solution of the phenomena, that ac- '»»«»« «y«^«»"^- cording to each of the erratic stars there should be different spheres revolving, less by one than those which carry along the planets, and, in regard of position, restore into the same place the first sphere invariably of the star which is rankec in an inferior order; for in this way only is it possible that by the orbital motion ^ of the planets should be produced all the phenomena that may be observed. Since, therefore, as regards the spheres in which the planets are carried along, some of them are made to amount to eight, but others to five* and-twenty, and of these it is not necessary that those merely should have revolving spheres in which a star arranged lowest down is carried, those, accordingly, that impart a revolutionary motion to the spheres of the two first will be six in number, while those to the spheres of the four sub- sequent stars will be eleven: the total amount of all the spheres, however, as well those that carry along the stars, as also those that make them revolve, will be fifty and five. But if one were not to add the motions of the moon which we have mentioned to the sun also, all the spheres will be forty and seven.
Let the number, then, of the spheres amount to ^ so many; wherefore, it is reasonable to suppose Ince'toIst'S:! tnat both the substances and the first principles ^^^y «ettie& I which are immovable, and are cognisant by the to the numbel senses, should be so many in number as we have substances. I enumerated; for that there must necessarily be such a number as this, let it be left to those to decide who are endued with greater ability to declare their sentiments * We have here a fragment of Aristotle's own astronomic systam, probably taken from his work on astronomy, which has not come down to us.
^ <f>of*dy. This is the word I have translated ''orbital motion." Taylor renders it simply ''motion.* S38 THE MBTAFHTSICS OF ARISTOTLB. [bOOK XI.
9n such points. If, however, it is not possible that there should be any orbital motion which does not contribute towards the orbital motion of a star,^ and, further, if it is requisite to suppose that every nature and every substance ought to be regarded — provided it be devoid of passion, and y^ \ be essential — as having attained the most excellent end, in this case there would not be in existence any other nature independent of these: but it is necessary that this should constitute the total amount of substances; for whether there should be others, they would impart motion, as being an end of orbital motion.
8 No ceiesHai ^^*' ^^ ^^^ ^*®' ^* ^® impossible that there I rnotions inde- should be Other Orbital motions beside those that thMeSfthe ^^^® ^®^ enumerated; and this supposition it heavenly would be reasonable to arrive at from observing the bodies that are being moved along the surface of the heavens.^ For on the supposition that everything that is borne along the firmament subsists by the constitution of Nature, on account of that body which is borne along, and that every motion belongs to something that is carried forward, there would not exist any orbital motion on account of itself or of another motion; but on account of the stars would it exist. For if we admit that orbital motion will subsist on account of motion of the same sort, it will be requisite that this latter, likewise, should subsist on account of other orbital motions. So that, since it is not also possible to go on in a progression to infinity, an end of every orbital motion wiD be some one of those Divine bodies that are borne along the surface of the heaven. That there is That, howovor, there is one heaven^ is evident; y* iwheavent^' ^^^ ^^ there Were many lieavens — as there are proved. ' men — ^in regard of each will there be such a