CHAP. 13. SAME SUBJECT, CONTINUED.
21. Whatever, then, is in accordance with the habits of those with whom we are either compelled by necessity, or undertake as a matter of duty, to spend this life, is to be turned by good and great men to some pru- dent or benevolent end, either directly, as is our duty, or figuratively, as is allowable to prophets.
CHAP. 14. ERROR OF THOSE WHO THINK THAT THERE IS NO ABSOLUTE RIGHT AND WRONG.
22. But when men unacquainted with other modes of life than their own meet with the record of such actions, unless they are re- strained by authority, they look upon them as sins, and do not consider that their own customs either in regard to marriage, or feasts, or dress, or the other necessities and adorn- ments of human life, appear sinful to the people of other nations and other times. And, distracted by this endless variety of customs, some who were half asleep (as I may say) — that is, who were neither sunk in the deep sleep of folly, nor were able to awake into the light of wisdom — have thought that there was no such thing as absolute right, Chap. XVII.]
ON CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE.
563 but that every nation took its own custom for right; and that, since every nation has a different custom, and right must remain un- changeable, it becomes manifest that there is no such thing as right at all. Such men did not perceive, to take only one example, that the precept, " Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them," * cannot be altered by any diversity of national customs. And this precept, when it is re- ferred to the love of God, destroys all vices; when to the love of one's neighbor, puts an end to all crimes. For no one is willing to defile his own dwelling; he ought not, there- fore, to defile the dwelling of God, that is, himself. And no one wishes an injury to be done him by another; he himself, therefore, ought not to do injury to another.
CHAP. 15. RULE FOR INTERPRETING FIGURA- TIVE EXPRESSIONS.
23. The tyranny of lust being thus over- thrown, charity reigns through its supremlly just laws of love to God for His own sake, and love to one's self and one's neighbor for God's sake. Accordingly, in regard to figura- tive expressions, a rule such as the following will be observed, to carefully turn over in our minds and meditate upon what we read till an interpretation be found that tends to establish the reign of love. Now, if when taken literally it at once gives a meaning of this kind, the expression is not to be considered figurative.
CHAP. 1 6. — RULE FOR INTERPRETING COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS.
24. If the sentence_is one of command, either forbidding a crime or vice, or enjoining an act of prudence or benevolence, it is not figurative. Ifr howeyerTTt seems to enjoin a crime or vice, or to forbid an act of prudence or"lJenevolencei_it js_ figurative. "Except ye eat the flesh of the Son of man," says Christ, " and drink His blood, ye have no life in you."2 This seems to enjoin a crime or a vice; it is therefore a figure, enjoining that we should have a share in the sufferings of our Lord, and that we should retain a sweet and profitable memory of the fact that His flesh was wounded and crucified for us. Scripture says: " If thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink;" and this is beyond doubt a command to do a kindness. But in what follows, " for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head," 3 one 1 Matt. vii. 12. Comp. Tobit iv. 15.
- John vi. 53.
3 Rom xii. 20; Prov. xxv. 21, 22.
would think a deed of malevolence was en- joined. Do not doubt, then, that the ex- pression is figurative; and, while it is possible to interpret it in two ways, one pointing to the doing of an injury, the other to a display of superiority, let charity on the contrary call you back to benevolence, and interpret the coals of fire as the burning groans of peni- tence by which a man's pride is cured who bewails that he has been the enemy of one who came to his assistance in distress. In the same way, when our Lord says, " He who loveth his life shall lose it,"4 we are not to think that He forbids the prudence with which it is a man's duty to care for his life, but that He says in a figurative sense, " Let him lose his life " — that is, let him destroy and lose that perverted and unnatural use which he now makes of his life, and through which his desires are fixed on temporal things so that he gives no heed to eternal. It is written: "Give to the godly man, and help not a sinner."3 The latter clause of this sentence seems to forbid benevolence; for it says, "help not a sinner." Understand, therefore, that "sinner" is put figuratively for sin, so that it is his sin you are not to help.
CHAP. 17. SOME COMMANDS ARE GIVEN TO ALL IN COMMON, OTHERS TO PARTICULAR CLASSES.
25. Again, it often happens that a man who has attained, or thinks he has attained, to a higher grade of spiritual life, thinks that the commands given to those who are still in the lower grades are figurative; for example, if he has embraced a life of celibacy and made himself a eunuch for the kingdom of heaven's sake, he contends that the commands given in Scripture about loving and ruling a wife are not to be taken literally, but figuratively; and if he has determined to keep his virgin un- married, he tries to put a figurative interpreta- tion on the passage where it is said, " Marry thy daughter, and so shalt thou have per- formed a weighty matter."6 Accordingly, another of our rules for understanding the Scriptures will be as follows, — to recognize that some commands are given to all in com- mon, others to particular classes of persons, that the medicine may act not only upon the state of health as a whole, but also upon the special weakness of each member. For that which cannot be raised to a higher state must be cared for in its own state.
4 John xii. 25. Comp. Matt. x. 39.
5 Ecclus. xii. 4. Comp. Tobit iv. 17.
6 Ecclus. vii. 27.
564 ON CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE.
[Book III.
CHAP. 1 8. WE MUST TAKE INTO CONSIDERA- TION THE TIME AT WHICH ANYTHING WAS ENJOYED OR ALLOWED.
26. We must also be on our guard against supposing that what in the Old Testament, making allowance for the condition of those times, is not a crime or a vice even if we take it literally and not figuratively, can be trans- ferred to the present time as a habit of life. For no one will do this except lust has dominion over him, and endeavors to find sup- port for itself in the very Scriptures which were intended to overthrow it. And the wretched man does not perceive that such matters are recorded with this useful design, that men of good hope may learn the salutary lesson, both that the custom they spurn can be turned to a good use, and that which they embrace can be used to condemnation, if the use of the former be accompanied with char- ity, and the use of the latter with lust.
27. For, if it was possible for one man to use many wives with chastity, it is possible for another to use one wife with lust. And I look with greater approval on the man who uses the fruitfulness of many wives for the sake of an ulterior object, than on the man who enjoys the body of one wife for its own sake. For in the former case the man aims at a useful object suited to the circumstances of the times; in the latter case he gratifies a lust which is engrossed in temporal enjoy- ments. And those men to whom the apostle permitted as a matter of indulgence to have one wife because of their incontinence,1 were less near to God than those who, though they had each of them numerous wives, yet just as a wise man uses food and drink only for the sake of bodily health, used marriage only for the sake of offspring. And, accordingly, if these last had been still alive at the advent of our Lord, when the time not of casting stones away but of gathering them together had come,2 they would have immediately made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heav- en's sake. For there is no difficulty in ab- staining unless when there is lust in enjoying. And assuredly those men of whom I speak knew that wantonness even in regard to wives is abuse and intemperance, as is proved by Tobit's prayer when he was married to his wife. For he says: " Blessed art Thou, O God of our fathers, and blessed is Thy holy and glorious name for ever; let the heavens bless Thee, and all Thy creatures. Thou madest Adam, and gavest him Eve his wife for an helper and stay...And now, O Lord, Thou knowest that I take not this my 2 Eccles. lii. 5.
sister for lust, but uprightly: therefore have | pity on us, O Lord." 3 CHAP. 19. WICKED MEN JUDGE OTHERS BY THEMSELVES.
28. But those who, giving the rein to lust, either wander about steeping themselves in a multitude of debaucheries, or even in regard to one wife not only exceed the measure necessary for the procreation of children, but with the shameless licence of a sort of slavish freedom heap up the filth of a still more beastly excess, such men do not believe it possible that the men of ancient times used a number of wives with temperance, looking to nothing but the duty, necessary in the circumstances of the time, of propagating the race; and what they themselves, who are entangled in the meshes of lust, do not accomplish in the case of a single wife, they think utterly im- possible in the case of a number of wives.
29. But these same men might say that it is not right even to honor and praise good and holy men, because they themselves when they are honored and praised, swell with pride, becoming the more eager for the emp- tiest sort of distinction the more frequently and the more widely they are blown about on the tongue of flattery, and so become so light that a breath of rumor, whether it appear pros- perous or adverse, will carry them into the whirlpool of vice or dash them on the rocks of crime. Let them, then, learn how trying and difficult it is for themselves to escape either being caught by the bait of praise, or pierced by the stings of insult; but let them not measure others by their own standard.
CHAP. 20. CONSISTENCY OF GOOD MEN IN ALL OUTWARD CIRCUMSTANCES.
Let them believe, on the contrary, that the apostles of our faith were neither puffed up when they were honored by men, nor cast down when they were despised. And cer- tainly neither sort of temptation was wanting to those great men. For they were both cried up by the loud praises of believers, and cried down by the slanderous reports of their persecutors. But the apostles used all these things, as occasion served, and were not cor- rupted; and in the same way the saints of old used their wives with reference to the neces- sities of their own times, and were not in bondage to lust as they are who refuse to be- lieve these things.
30. For if they had been under the influ- ence of any such passion, they could never have restrained themselves from implacable 3 Tobit viii 5-7. p Chap. XXIII.]
ON CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE.
565 hatred towards their sons, by whom they knew that their wives and concubines were solicited and debauched.
CHAP. 21. DAVID NOT LUSTFUL, THOUGH HE FELL INTO ADULTERY.
But when King David had suffered this in- jury at the hands of his impious and unnatu- ral son, he not only bore with him in his mad passion, but mourned over him in his death. He certainly was not caught in the meshes of carnal jealousy, seeing that it was not his own injuries but the sins of his son that moved him. For it was on this account he had given orders that his son should not be slain if he were conquered in battle, that he might have a place of repentance after he was subdued; and when he was baffled in this design, he mourned over his son's death, not because of his own loss, but because he knew to what punishment so impious an adulterer and parricide had been hurried.1 For prior to this, in the case of another son who had been guilty of no crime, though he was dread- fully afflicted for him while he was sick, yet he comforted himself after his death.2 31. And with what moderation and self-re- straint those men used their wives appears chiefly in this, that when this same king, car- ried away by the heat of passion and by tem- poral prosperity, had taken unlawful posses- sion of one woman, whose husband also he ordered to be put to death, he was accused of his crime by a prophet, who, when he had come to show him his sin, set before him the parable of the poor man who had but one ewe- lamb, and whose neighbor, though he had many, yet when a guest came to him spared to take of his own flock, but set his poor neigh- bor's one lamb before his guest to eat. And David's anger being kindled against the man, he commanded that he should be put to death, and the lamb restored fourfold to the poor man; thus unwittingly condemning the sin he had wittingly committed.3 And when he had been shown this, and God's punish- ment had been denounced against him, he wiped out his sin in deep penitence. But yet in this parable it was the adultery only that was indicated by the poor man's ewe-lamb; about the killing of the woman's husband, — that is, about the murder of the poor man himself who had the one ewe-lamb, — nothing is said in the parable, so that the sentence of condemnation is pronounced against the adultery alone. And hence we may understand with what temperance he possessed a number 1 Comp. 2 Sam. xvi. 22; xviii. 5; xix. 1.
1-6.
of wives when he was forced to punish him- self for transgressing in regard to one woman. But in his case the immoderate desire did not take up its abode with him, but was only a passing guest. On this account the unlawful appetite is called even by the accusing prophet, a guest. For he did not say that he took the poor man's ewe-lamb to make a feast for his king, but for his guest. In the case of his son Solomon, however, this lust did not come and pass away like a guest, but reigned as a king. And about him Scripture is not si- lent, but accuses him of being a lover of strange women; for in the beginning of his reign he was inflamed with a desire for wis- dom, but after he had attained it through spir- itual love, he lost it through carnal lust.4 CHAP. 22. — RULE REGARDING PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE IN WHICH APPROVAL IS EXPRESSED OF ACTIONS WHICH ARE NOW CONDEMNED BY GOOD MEN.
32. Therefore, although all, or nearly all, the transactions recorded in the Old Testa- ment are to be taken not literally only, but figuratively as well, nevertheless even in the case of those which the reader has taken liter- ally, and which, though the authors of them are praised, are repugnant to the habits of the good men who since our Lord's advent are the custodians of the divine commands, let him refer the figure to its interpretation, but let him not transfer the act to his habits of life. For many things which were done as duties at that time, cannot now be done except through lust.
CHAP. 23. RULE REGARDING THE NARRATIVE OF SINS OF GREAT MEN.
^^. And when he reads of the sins of great men, although he may be able to see and to trace out in them a figure of things to come, let him yet put the literal fact to this use also, to teach him not to dare to vaunt himself in his own good deeds, and in comparison with his own righteousness, to despise others as sinners, when he sees in the case of men so eminent both the storms that are to be avoided and the shipwrecks that are to be wept over. For the sins of these men were recorded to this end, that men might everywhere and always tremble at that saying of the apostle: "Wherefore let him that thinketh he stand- eth take heed lest he fall."5 For there is hardly a page of Scripture on which it is not clearly written that God resisteth the proud and giveth grace to the humble.6 Cor. x. 12.
6 Comp. Jas. iv. 6 and 1 Pet. v. 6.
566 ON CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE.
[Book III.
CHAP. 24. THE CHARACTER OF THE EXPRES- SIONS USED IS ABOVE ALL TO HAVE WEIGHT.
34. The chief thing to be inquired into, therefore, in regard to any expression that we are trying to understand is, whether it is lite- ral or figurative. For when it is ascertained to be figurative, it is easy, by an application of the laws of things which we discussed in the first book, to turn it in every way until we arrive at a true interpretation, especially when we bring to our aid experience strengthened by the exercise of piety. Now we find out whether an expression is literal or figurative by attending to the considerations indicated above.
CHAP. 25. THE SAME WORD DOES NOT ALWAYS SIGNIFY THE SAME THING.
And when it is shown to be figurative, the words in which it is expressed will be found to be drawn either from like objects or from objects having some affinity.
35. But as there are many ways in which things show a likeness to each other, we are not to suppose there is any rule that what a thing signifies by similitude in one place it is to be taken to signify in all other places. For our Lord used leaven both in a bad sense, as when He said, " Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees,"1 and in a good sense, as when He said, " The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven, which a woman took and hid in three measures of meal, till the whole was leavened." - 36. Now the rule in regard to this variation has two forms. For things that signify now one thing and now another, signify either things that are contrary, or things that are only different. They signify contraries, for example, when they are used metaphorically at one time in a good sense, at another in a bad, as in the case of the leaven mentioned above. Another example of the same is that a lion stands for Christ in the place where it is said, " The lion of the tribe of Judah hath prevailed; "3 and again, stands for the devil where it is written, " Your adversary the devil, as a roaring lion, walketh about seeking whom he may devour."4 In the same way the ser- pent is used in a good sense, " Be wise as serpents; " s and again, in a bad sense, " The serpent beguiled Eve through his subtilty. "6 Bread is used in a good sense, " I am the liv- ing bread which came down from heaven; " 7 in a bad, " Bread eaten in secret is pleasant." 8 And so in a great many other cases. The examples I have adduced are indeed by no means doubtful in their signification, because only plain instances ought to be used as ex- amples. There are passages, however, in regard to which it is uncertain in what sense they ought to be taken, as for example, " In the hand of the Lord there is a cup, and the wine is red: it is full of mixture." 9 Now it is uncertain whether this denotes the wrath of God, but not to the last extremity of pun- ishment, that is, "to the very dregs;" or whether it denotes the grace of the Scriptures passing away from the Jews and coming to the Gentiles, because " He has put down one and set up another," — certain observances, however, which they understand in a carnal manner, still remaining among the Jews, for "the dregs hereof is not yet wrung out." The following is an example of the same ob- ject being taken, not in opposite, but only in different significations: water denotes people, as we read in the Apocalypse,10 and also the Holy Spirit, as for example, " Out of his belly shall flow rivers of living water; " " and many other things besides water must be inter- preted according to the place in which they are found.
37. And in the same way other objects are not single in their signification, but each one of them denotes not two only but sometimes even several different things, according to the connection in which it is found.
CHAP. 26. OBSCURE PASSAGES ARE TO BE IN- TERPRETED BY THOSE WHICH ARE CLEARER.
Now from the places where the sense in which they are used is more manifest we must gather the sense in which they are to be un- derstood in obscure passages. For example, there is no better way of understanding the words addressed to God, "Take hold of shield and buckler and stand up for mine help," I2 than by referring to the passage where we read, " Thou, Lord, hast crowned us with Thy favor as with a shield."13 And yet we are not so to understand it, as that wherever we meet with a shield put to indicate a pro- tection of any kind, we must take it as signi- fying nothing but the favor of God. For we hear also of the shield of faith, "wherewith," says the apostle, " ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the wicked.14 Nor ought we, on the other hand, in regard to spiritual armor of this kind to assign faith to the shield only; for we read in another place of the breastplate of faith: " putting on," says the apostle, " the breastplate of faith and love.15 9 Ps. lxxv. 8.
12 Ps. XXXV. 2.
J5 1 Thess. v.
11 John vii. 38. '4 Eph. vi. 16.
Chap. XXIX.]
ON CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE.
567 I CHAP. 27. ONE PASSAGE SUSCEPTIBLE OF VARI- OUS INTERPRETATIONS.
38. When, again, not some one interpreta- I tion, but two or mure interpretations are put I upon the same words of Scripture, even though I the meaning the writer intended remain un- I discovered, there is no danger if it can be I shown from other passages of Scripture that I any of the interpretations put on the words I is in harmony with the truth. And if a man I in searching the Scriptures endeavors to get at the intention of the author through whom I the Holy Spirit spake, whether he succeeds I in this endeavor, or whether he draws a differ- I ent meaning from the words, but one that is I not opposed to sound doctrine, he is free I from blame so long as he is supported by the I testimony of some other passage of Script- I ure. For the author perhaps saw that this I very meaning lay in the words which we are I trying to interpret; and assuredly the Holy K Spirit, who through him spake these words, I foresaw that this interpretation would occur I to the reader, nay, made provision that it I should occur to him, seeing that it too is I founded on truth. For what more liberal and I more fruitful provision could God have made E in regard to the Sacred Scriptures than that I the same words might be understood in seve- I ral senses, all of which are sanctioned by the I concurring testimony of other passages I equally divine?
I CHAP. 28. IT IS SAFER TO EXPLAIN A DOUBT- FUL PASSAGE BY OTHER PASSAGES OF SCRIPT- URE THAN BY REASON.
39. When, however, a meaning is evolved of such a kind that what is doubtful in it can- not be cleared up by indubitable evidence from Scripture, it remains for us to make it clear by the evidence of reason. But this is a dan- gerous practice. For it is far safer to walk by the light of Holy Scripture; so that when we wish to examine the passages that are ob- scured by metaphorical expressions, vve may either obtain a meaning about which there is I no controversy, or if a controversy arises, may settle it by the application of testimonies sought out in every portion of the same Script- ure.
CHAP. 29. — THE KNOWLEDGE OF TROPES IS NECESSARY.
40. Moreover, I would have learned men to know that the authors of our Scriptures use all those forms of expression which gramma- rians call by the Greek name tropes, and use them more freely and in greater variety than people who are unacquainted with the Scriptures, and have learnt these figures of speech from other writings, can imagine or believe. Nevertheless those who know these tropes recognize them in Scripture, and are very much assisted by their knowledge of them in understanding Scripture. But this is not the place to teach them to the illiterate, lest it might seem that I was teaching grammar. I certainly advise, however, that they be learnt elsewhere, although indeed I have already given that advice above, in the second book — namely, where I treated of the necessary knowledge of languages. For the written characters from which grammar itself gets its name (the Greek name for letters being ypd/J.piaTa) are the signs of sounds made by the articulate voice with which we speak. Now of some of these figures of speech we find in Scripture not only examples (which we have of them all), but the very names as well: for instance, allegory, enigma, and parable. However, nearly all these tropes which are said to be learnt as a matter of liberal educa- tion are found even in the ordinary speech of men who have learnt no grammar, but are content to use the vulgar idiom. For who does not say, " So may you flourish? " And this is the figure of speech called metaphor. Who does not speak of a fish-pond z in which there is no fish, which was not made for fish, and yet gets its name from fish? And this is the figure called catachrcsis.