4 Beausobre and Cave suppose that we have the whole of Faustus' book embodied in Augustin's review of it. Lardner is of opin- 1 II that the commencement, and perhaps the greater part, of the work is given, but not the whole.
I 5 See the interesting account of Faustus in the Confessions, v. 10.
I ^ [This estimate of Faustus is somewhat too disparaging. For fuller bibliography, see Introductory Essay. — A. H. N.] I 7 His willingness to do so, and the success with which he encountered the most renowned champions of this heresy, should have i()revented Beausobre from charging hiiu with misunderstanding or misrepresenting the Manichacan doctrine. The retractation of I- i-lix tells strongly against this view of Augustin's incompetence to deal with Manicha;ism. 8 Possidius, I'ita A ug. vi.
o 6 THE WORKS OF ST. AUGUSTIN.
sin is the grand original evil. The most remarkable circumstance in the discussion is the desire of Fortunatus to direct the conversation to the conduct of tlie Manichasans, and the refusal of Augustin to make good the charges which had been made against them, or to discuss anything but the doctrine.'
Twelve years after this, a similar disputation was held between Augustin and one of the elect among the Manichceans, who had come to Hippo to propagate his religion. This man, Felix, is described by Augustin = as being ill-educated, but more adroit and subtle than Fortunatus. After a keen discussion, which occupied two days, the proceedings terminated by Felix signing a recantation of his errors in the form of an anathema ou Mani, his doctrines, and the seducing spirit that possessed him. These two disputations are valuable, as exhib- iting the points of the Manichoean system to which its own adherents were accustomed to direct attention, and the arguments on which they specially relied for their support.
The works given in the accompanying volume comprehend by no means the whole of Augustin's writings against this heresy. Before his ordination he wrote five anti-Manichaean books, entitled, De Libera Arbitriu, De Gene si contra AlanichcEos^ De Moribtis Ecclesia Caiholicce, De Moribus ManichcBoruin, and De Vera Religi- one. These Paulinus called his anti-Manichsean Pentateuch. After his ordination he was equally diligent, publishing a little treatise in the year 391, under the title De Utilitate Credendi,^ which was immediately fol- lowed by a small work, De Duabiis Aniinabtts. In the following year the report of the Dispuiatio contra Fo}-- tiinaium was published; and after this, at short intervals, there appeared the books Contra Aditnanttmi, Con- tra Epistolam Matiichiri qztam vocant Fundamenti^ Contra Faiistum, Disptitatio contra Felicem, De A'atura Boni, and Contra Secnndinum.
Besides these writings, which are exclusively occupied with Manichaeism. there are others in which the Manichasan doctrines are handled with more or less directness. These are the Confessions^ the 79th and 236th Letters, the Lecture on Psalm 140, Sermons i, 2, 12, 50, 153, 182, 237, the Liber de Agone Christiano, and the De Continentia.
Of these writings, Augustin himself professed a preference for the reply to the letter of Secundinus.'* It is a pleasing feature of the times, that a heretic whom he did not know even by sight should write to Augustin entreating him to abstain from writing against the Manichoeans, and reconsider his position, and ally himself with those whom he had till now fancied to be in error. His language is respectful, and illustrates the esteem in which Augustin was held by his contemporaries; though he does not scruple to insinuate that his conversion from Manichaeism was due to motives not of the highest kind. We have not given this letter and its reply, because the preference of Augustin has not been ratified by the judgment of his readers.
The present volume gives a fair sample of Augustin's controversial powers. His nine years' personal experience of the vanity of Manichoeism made him thoroughly earnest and sympathetic in his efforts to disen- tangle other men from its snares, and also equipped him with the knowledge requisite for this task. No doubt the Pelagian controversy was more congenial to his mind. His logical acuteness and knowledge of Scripture availed him more in combating men who fought with the same weapons, than in dealing with a system which threw around its positions the mist of Gnostic speculation, or veiled its doctrine under a grotesque mythology, or based itself on a cosmogony too fantastic for a Western mind to tolerate.5 But however Augustin may have misconceived the strange forms in which this system was presented, there is no doubt that he comprehended and demolished its fundamental principles; * that he did so as a necessary part of his own personal search for the truth; and that in doing so he gained possession, vitally and permanently of ideas and principles which subsequently entered into all he thought and wrote. In finding his way through the mazes of the obscure region into which Mani had led him, he once for all ascertained the true relation subsisting between God and His crea- tures, formed his opinion regarding the respective provinces of reason and faith, and the connection of the Old and New Testaments, and found the root of all evil in the created will. THE EDITOR.
Some knowledge of the Magianism of the time of Mani may be obtained from the sacred books of the Par- sis, especially from the Vendidad Sade, an account of which is given by Dr. Wilson, of Bombay, in his book on the Parsi Religion. — Tr.
1 This cannot but make us cautious in receiving the statements of the tract. On the Morals 0/ the Manichtsans. There can be httle doubt that many of the Manichaeans practiced the ascetic virtues, and were recognizable by the gauntness and pallor of their looks, so that Manichasan became a by-word for any one who did not appreciate the felicity of good living. Thus Jerome says of a certain class of women, "y«'!:'« viderint pallentem aique tristein, Miseratn, J\Io>iacham,et Manichcean vocant '' {De Ctistod. Virg. Ep. t8). Lardner throws light on the practices of the Manichaeans, and effectually disposes of some of the calumnies uttered regarding them. Pusey's appendix to his translation of the Confessions may also be referred to with advantage.
2 Retract, ii. 8. 3 Epist. A ugust. xxv, 4 Retract, ii. 10: " quod, mea senteiitia, omnibus guas adversus illavi pestem scribere potui, facile prceponoy The reason of this preference is explained by Bindemann, Der heilige Augustinus, iii. 168.
5 '■'■Wo Entwickelungen, dialektische Begriffe sein solltejt, stellt sich ein Bitd, ein Mythus e/«."— Bohringer, p. 390.
6 Some have thought Augustin more successful here than elsewhere. Cassiodorus may have thought so when he said; " diligen- tius atque vivacius adversus eos quam contra hxreses alias disseruit" {Instit. i. quoted by Lardner).
ST. AUGUSTIN ON THE MORALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH [DE MORIBUS ECCLESI^ CATHOLIC^E].
A.D. 388.
TRANSLATED BY REV. RICHARD STOTHERT, M.A., BOMBAY CONTENTS OF THE MORALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
PAGE Chap. I. — How the pretensions of the Manichzeans are to be refuted. Two Manichsean falsehoods...41 Chap. II. — He begins with arguments, in compliance with the mistaken method of the Manichaans.. 42 Chap. III. — Happiness is in the enjoyment of man's chief good. Two conditions of the chief good: ist, nothing is better than it; 2d, it cannot be lost against the will 42 Chap. V. — Man's chief good is not the chief good of the body only, but the chief good of the soul...43 Chap. VI. — Virtue gives perfection to the soul; the soul obtains virtue by following God; following God is the happy life 43 CriAP. VII. — The knowledge of God to be obtained from the Scripture. The plan and principal mys- teries of the divine scheme of redemption 44 Thap. VIII. — God is the chief good, whom we are to seek after with supreme affection 44 J HAP. IX. — Harmony of the Old and New Testament on the precepts of charity 45 Jhap. X. — What the church teaches about God. The two gods of the Manichseans 46 Jhap. XI. — God is the one object of love; therefore He is man's chief good. Nothing is better than God. God cannot be lost against our will 46 2h\?. XII.^\Ve are united to God by love, in subjection to Him 47 ^HAP. XIII. — We are joined inseparably to God by Christ and His Spirit 48 Chap. XIV. — We cleave to the Trinity, our chief good, by love 48 'hap. XV. — The Christian definition of the four virtues 48 HAP. XVI. — Harmony of the Old and New Testaments 49 HAP. XVII. — Appeal to the Manichceans, calling oil them to repent 50 Chap. XVIII. — Only in the Catholic church is perfect truth established on the harmony of both Testaments. 50 HAP. XIX. — Description of the duties of temperance, according to the sacred Scriptures 51 Chap. XX. — We are required to despise all sensible things, and to love God alone 52 HAP. XXI. — Popular renown and inquisitiveness are condemned in the sacred Scriptures 52 "hap. XXII. — Fortitude comes from the love of God 53 hap. XXIII. — Scripture precepts and examples of fortitude 53 Hap. XXIV. — Of justice and prudence 54 it.^p. XXV.— Four moral duties regarding the love of God, of which love the reward is eternal life and the knowledge of the truth 54 hap. XXVI. — Love of ourselves and of our neighbor 55 ^KAP. XXVII. — On doing good to the body of our neighbor 55 Chap. XXVIII. — On doing good to the soul of our neighbor. Two parts of discipline, restraint and in- struction. Through good conduct we arrive at the knowledge of the truth 56 40 CONTENTS OF- THE MORALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
PAGE Chap. XXIX. — Of the authority of the Scriptures 57 Chap. XXX. — The Church apostrophized as teacher of all wisdom. Doctrine of the Catholic Church.. 58 Chap. XXXI. — The life of the Anachoretes and Coenobites set against the continence of the ^lanichceans. 59 Chap. XXXII. — Praise of the clergy 60 Chap. XXXIII. — Another kind of men living together in cities. Fasts of three days 60 Chap. XXXIV. — The Church is not to be blamed for the conduct of bad Christians, worshippers of tombs and pictures...,„ 61 Chap. XXXV. — Marriage and property allowed to be baptized by the apostles, o,,,„...62 OF THE MORALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH/ [DE MORIBUS ECCLESI/E CATHOLICyE]. A.D. 388.
IT IS LAID DOWN AT THE OUTSET THAT THE CUSTOMS OF THE HOLY LIFE OF THE CHURCH SHOULD BE REFERRED TO THE CHIEF GOOD OF MAN, THAT IS, GOD. WE MUST SEEK AFTER GOD WITH SUPREME AFFECTION; AND THIS DOCTRINE IS SUPPORTED IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH BY THE AUTHORITY OF BOTH TESTAMENTS. THE FOUR VIRTUES GET THEIR NAMES FROM DIFFERENT FORMS OF THIS LOVE. THEN FOLLOW THE DUTIES OF LOVE TO OUR NEIGH- BOR. IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH WE FIND EXAMPLES OF CONTINENCE AND OF TRUE CHRISTIAN CONDUCT.
CHAP. I.- -HOW THE PRETENSIONS OF THE MAN- ICH^ANS ARE TO BE REFUTED. TWO MANI- CHvEAN FALSEHOODS.
I. Enough, probably, has been done in our other books "" in the way of answering the ig- norant and profane attacks which the Mani- chjeans make on the law, which is called the Old Testament, in a spirit of vainglorious boasting, and with the approval of the unin- structed. Here, too, I may shortly touch upon the sul)ject. For every one with aver- age intelligence can easily see that the ex- planation of the Scriptures should be sought for from those who are the professed teachers of the Scriptures; and that it may happen, and indeed always happens, that many things seem absurd to the ignorant, which, when they are explained by the learned, appear all the more excellent, and are received in the ex- planation with the greater pleasure on account ' Written in the year 388. In his Retractations (i. 7) Augfustin says- " When I was at Rome after my baptism, and could not bear in silence the vaunting of the Manichajans about their pre- tended and misleading continence or abstinence, in which, to de- ceive the inexperienced, they claim superiority over true Chris- tians, to whom they are not to be compared, I wrote two books, one on the morals of the Catholic Church, the other on the morals of the ^^anicha:ans."
- [This is commonly supposed to have been the first work of any importance written by the Author atrainst Manicha;ism. What he here refers to it is not easy to conjecture. — A. H. N.J of the obstructions which made it difficult to reach the meaning. This commonly happens as regards the holy books of the Old Testa- ment, if only the man who meets with diffi- culties applies to a pious teacher, and not to a profane critic, and if he begins his inquiries from a desire to find truth, and not in rash opposition. And should the inquirer meet with some, whether bishops or presbyters, or any officials or ministers of the Catholic Church, who either avoid in all cases opening up mysteries, or, content with simple faith, have no desire for more recondite knowledge, he must not despair of finding the knowledge of the truth in a case where neither are all able to teach to whom the inquiry is ad- dressed, nor are all inquirers worthy of learn- ing the truth. Diligence and piety are both necessary: on the one hand, we must have knowledge to find truth, and, on the other hand, we must deserve to get the knowledge. 2. But as the Manichaeans have two tricks for catching the unwary, so as to make them take them as teachers, — one, that of finding fault with the Scriptures, which they either misunderstand or wish to be misunderstood, the other, tliat of making a sliow of chastity and of notable abstinence, — this book shall 42 42 THE WORKS OF ST. AUGUSTIN.
[Chap. IV.
contain our doctrine of life and morals ac- cording to Catholic teaching, and will perhaps make it appear how easy it is to pretend to virtue, and how difficult to possess virtue. I will refrain, if I can, from attacking their weak points, which I know well, with the vio- lence with which they attack what they know nothing of; for T wish them, if possible, to be cured rather than conquered. And I will quote such testimonies from the Scriptures as they are bound to believe, for they shall be from the New Testament; and even from this I will take none of the passages which the Manich^eans when hard pressed are accus- tomed to call spurious, but passages which they are obliged to acknowledge and approve. And for every testimony from apostolic teach- ing I will bring a similar statement from the Old Testament, that if they ever become willing to wake up from their persistent dreams, and to rise towards the light of Chris- tian faith, they may discover both how far from being Christian is the life which they profess, and how truly Christian is the Script- ure which they cavil at.
HE BEGINS WITH ARGUMENTS, IN CHAP. 2.
COMPLIANCE WITH THE MISTAKEN METHOD OF THE MANICH^ANS.
3. Where, then, shall I begin? With au- thority, or with reasoning? In the order of nature, when we learn anything, authority precedes reasoning. For a reason may seem weak, when, after it is given, it requires au- thority to confirm it. But because the minds of men are obscured by familiarity with dark- ness, which covers them in the night of sins and evil habits, and cannot perceive in a way suitable to the clearness and purity of reason, there is most wholesome provision for bring- ing the dazzled eye into the light of truth under the congenial shade of authority. But since we have to do with people who are per- verse in all their thoughts and words and actions, and who insist on nothing more than on beginning with argument, I will, as a con- cession to them, take what I think a wrong method in discussion. For I like to imitate, as far as I can, the gentleness of my Lord Jesus Christ, who took on Himself the evil of death itself, wishing to free us from it.
CHAP. 3. HAPPINESS IS IN THE ENJOYMENT OF man's chief good. two CONDITIONS OF THE CHIEF GOOD: 1ST, NOTHING IS BETTER THAN IT; 2D, IT CANNOT BE LOST AGAINST THE WILL.
4. How then, according to reason, ought man to live? We all certainly desire to live happily; and there is no human being but as- sents to this statement almost before it is made. But the title happy cannot, in my opinion, belong either to him who has not what he loves, whatever it may be, or to him who has what he loves if it is hurtful, or to him who does not love what he has. althoutjh it IS good in perfection. For one who seeks what he cannot obtain suffers torture, and one who has got what is not desirable is cheated, and one who does not seek for what is worth seeking for is diseased. Now in all these cases the mind cannot but be unhappy, and happiness and unhappiness cannot reside at the same time in one man; so in none of these cases can the man be happ)^ I find, then, a fourth case, where the happy life exists, — when that which is man's chief good is both loved and possessed. For what do we call enjoyment but having at hand the objects of love? And no one can be happy who does not enjoy what is man's chief good, nor is there any one who enjoys this who is not happy. We must then have at hand our chief good, if we think of living happily.
5. We must now inquire what is man's chief good, which of course cannot be anything in- ferior to man himself. For whoever follows after what is inferior to himself, becomes himself inferior. But every man is bound to follow what is best. Wherefore man's chief good is not inferior to man. Is it then some- thing similar to man himself? It must be so, if there is nothing above man which he is capable of enjoying. But if we find some- thing which is both superior to man. and can be possessed by the man who loves it, who can doubt that in seeking for happiness man should endeavor to reach that which is more excellent than the being who makes the en- deavor. For if happiness consists in the enjoyment of a good than which there is nothing better, which we call the chief good, hov/ can a man be properly called happy who has not yet attained to his chief good? or how can that be the chief good beyond which some- thing better remains for us to arrive at? Such, then, being the chief good, it must be something which cannot be lost against the will. For no one can feel confident regard- ing a irood which he knows can be taken from him, although he wishes to keep and cherish it. But if a man feels no confidence regarding the good which he enjoys, how can he be happy while in such fear of losing it?
CHAP. 4.- — MAN — WHAT?
6. Let us then see what is better than man. This must necessarily be hard to find, unless CHAr. VI.]
OF THE MORALS OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
4.
we first ask and examine what man is. I am not now called upon to give a definition of man. The question here seems to me to be, — since almost all agree, or at least, which is enough, those I have now to do with are of the same opinion with me, that we are made up of soul and bod}', — What is man? Is he * both of these? or is he the body only, or the soul only? For although the things are two, soul and body, and although neither without the other could be called man (for the body would not be man without the soul, nor again would the soul be man if there were not a body animated by it), still it is possible that one of these may be held to be man, and may be called so. What then do we call man? Is he soul and body, as in a double harness, or like a centaur? Or do we mean the body only, as being in the service of the soul which rules it, as the word lamp denotes not the light and the case together, but only the case, yet it is on account of the light that it is so called? Or do we mean only the mind, and that on account of the body which it rules, as horseman means not the man and the horse, but the man only, and that as em- ployed in ruling the horse? This dispute is not easy to settle; or, if the proof is plain, the statement requires time. This is an ex- penditure of time and strength which we need not incur. For whether the name man belongs to both, or only to the soul, the chief good of man is not the chief good of the body; but what is the chief good either of both soul and body, or of the soul only, that is man's chief good.
CHAP. 5. — man's CHIEF GOOD IS NOT THE CHIEF GOOD OF THE BODY ONLY, BUT THE CHIEF GOOD OF THE SOUL, 7, Now if we ask what is the chief good of the body, reason obliges us to admit that it is that by means of which the body comes to be I in its best state. But of all the things which invigorate the body, there is nothing better or greater than the soul. The chief good of the body, then, is not bodily pleasure, not absence of pain, not strength, not beauty, not swiftness, or whatever eJse is usually reck- oned among the goods of the body, but sim- ply the soul. For all the things mentioned the soul supplies to the body by its presence, and, what is above them all, life. Hence I conclude that the soul is not tlie chief good of m,an, whether we give the name of man to soul and body together, or to the soul alone. For as, according to reason, the chief good of the body is that which is better than the body, and from which the body receives vigor and life, so whether the soul itself is man, or soul i and body both, we must discover whether there is anything which goes before the soul itself, in following which the soul comes to the perfection of good of which it is capable in its own kind. If such a thing can be found, all uncertainty must be at an end, and we must pronounce this to be really and truly the chief good of man.
8, If, again, the body is man, it must be admitted that the soul is the chief good of man. But clearly, when we treat of morals, — when we inquire what manner of life must be held in order to obtain happiness, — it is not the body to which the precepts are ad- dressed, it is not bodily discipline which we discuss. In short, the observance of good customs belongs to that part of us which in- quires and learns, which are the prerogatives of the soul; so, when we speak of attaining to virtue, the question does not regard the body. But if it follows, as it does, that the body which is ruled over by a soul possessed of virtue is ruled both better and more hon- orably, and is in its greatest perfection in consequence of the perfection of the soul which rightfully governs it, that which gives perfection to the soul will be man's chief good, though we call the body man. For if my coachman, in obedience to me, feeds and drives the horses he has charge of in the most satisfactory manner, himself enjoying the more of my bounty in proportion to his good conduct, can any one deny that the good condition of the horses, as well as that of the coachman, is due to me? So the ques- tion seems to me to be not. whether soul and body is man, or the soul only, or the body only, but what gives perfection to tlie soul; for when this is obtained, a man cannot but be either perfect, or at least much better than in the absence of this one thing.
CHAP. 6. — VIRTUE GIVES PERFECTION TO THE SOUL; THE SOUL OBTAINS VIRTUE BY FOL- LOWING GOD; FOLLOWING GOD IS THE HAPPY LIFE.
9. No one will question that virtue gives perfection to the soul. But it is a very pro- per subject of inquiry whether this virtue can exist by itself or only in the soul. Here again arises a profound discussion, needing lengthy treatment; but perhaps my summary will serve the purpose. God will, I trust, as- sist me, so that, notwithstanding our feeble- ness, we may give instruction on these great matters briefly as well as intelligibly. In either case, whether virtue can exist by itself without the soul, or can exist only in the soul, undoubtedly in tlie pursuit of virtue the soul follows after something, and this must be 44 THE WORKS OF ST. AUGUSTIN.
[Chap. VIII.
either the soul itself, or virtue, or something else. But if the soul follows after itself in the pursuit of virtue, it follows after a foolish thing; for before obtaining virtue it is foolish. Now the height of a follower's desire is to reach that which he follows after. So the soul must either not wish to reach what it fol- lows after, which is utterly absurd and unrea- sonable, or, in following after itself while foolish, it reaches the folly which it flees from. But if it follows after virtue in the desire to reach it, how can it follow what does not exist? or how can it desire to reach what it already possesses? Either, therefore, vir- tue exists beyond the soul, or if we are not al- lowed to give the name of virtue except to the habit and disposition of the wise soul, which can exist only in the soul, we must al- low that the soul follows after something else in order that virtue may be produced in it- self; for neither by following after nothing, nor by following after folly, can the soul, ac- cording to my reasoning, attain to wisdom,