The Sage Digital Library Select Library of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of The Christian Church SECOND SERIES Under the Editorial Supervision of Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. and Henry Wace, D.D., Proiessor of Chinch Histoiy in the Proiessor of King's Union Theological Seminary, New York. College, London.
VOLUME 8 St. Basil: Letters and Selected Works New York Christian Literature Company 1890-1900 riajjUj^ Digital Hublifortigns THE TREATISE DE SPIRITU SANCTO THE NINE HOMILIES OF THE HEXAEMERON AND THE LETTERS OF SAINT BASIL THE GREAT ARCHBISHOP OF CAESAREA TRANSLATED WITH NOTES BY THE REV. BLOMFIELD JACKSON, M. A.
VICAR OF SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S, MOOR LANE, AND FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON PREFACE This translation of a portion of the works of St. Basil was originally begun under the editorial supervision of Dr. Wace. It was first announced that the translation would comprise the De Spiritu Sancto and Select Letters, but it was ultimately arranged with Dr. Wace that a volume of the series should be devoted to St. Basil, containing, as well as the De Spiritu Sancto, the whole of the letters, and the Hexaemeron. The De Spiritu Sancto has already appeared in an English form, as have portions of the Letters. The De Spiritu Sancto was presumably selected for publication as being at once the most famous, as it is among the most valuable, of the extant works of this Father. The Letters, comprise short theological treatises and contain passages of historical and varied biographical interest, as well as valuable specimens of spiritual and consolatory exhortation. The Hexaemeron was added as being the most noted and popular of St. Basil's compositions in older days, and as illustrating his exegetic method and skill, and his power as an extempore preacher.
The edition used as been that of the Benedictine editors as issued by Migne, with the aid, in the case of the De Spiritu Sancto, of that published by Rev. C. F. H. Johnston.
The editorship of Dr. Wace terminated during the progress of the work, but I am indebted to him, and very gratefully acknowledge the obligation, for valuable counsel and suggestions. I also desire to record my thanks to the Rev. C. Hole, Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History at King's College, London, and to Mr. Reginald Geare, Head Master of the Grammar School, Bishop's Stortford, to the former for help in the revision of proof — sheets and important suggestions, and to the letter for aid in the translation of several of the Letters.
The works consulted in the process of translation and attempted illustration are sufficiently indicated in the notes.
London, December, 1894.
CONTENTS Prolegomena Genealogical Tables Chronological Tables Biographical Sketch Notice of extant Works The De Spiritu Sancto TheHexaemeron The Le t t e r s CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE TO ACCOMPANY THE LIFE OF ST. BASIL A.D.
329 or 330. St. Basil born.
335. Council of Tyre.
336. Death of Arius.
337. Death of Constantine.
340. Death of Constantine II.
341. Dedication creed at Antioch.
343. Julian and Gallus relegated to Macellum.
Basil Probably Sent From Annen To School AtCaes area.
344. Macrostich, and Council of Sardica. 346. Basil Goes To Constantinople.
350. Death of Constans.
351. Basil Goes To Athens. 353. Death ofMagnentius.
355. Julian goes to Athens (latter part of year).
356. Basil Returns ToCaesarea.
357. The 2d Creed of Sirmium, or Blasphemy, subscribed by Hosius and Liberius.
Basil Baptized, And Shortly Afterwards Ordained Reader.
358. Basil Visits Monastic Establishments In Egypt, Syria, Palestine, And Mesoptamia, And Retires To The Monastery On The Iris.
359. The 3d Creed of Sirmium, Dated May 22. Councils of Seleucia and Ariminum..
360. Acacian synod of Constantinople.
Basil, Now Ordained Deacon, Disputes With Aetius. Dianius subscribes the Creed of Ariminum, and Basil In Consequence Leaves Caesarea. He Visits Gregory At Nazianzus.
361. Death of Constantius and accession of Julian. Basil Writes The "Moralia."
7 362. BasilReturns To Caesarea.
Dianius dies. Eusebius baptized, elected, and consecrated bishop. Lucifer consecrates Paulinus at Antioch. Julian at Caesarea. Martyrdom ofEupsychius.
363. Julian dies (June 27). Accession of Jovian.
364. Jovian dies. Accession ofValentinian and Valens. Basil Ordained Priest By Eusebius.
Basil Writes Against Eunomius. Semiarian Council of Lampsacus.
365. Revolt of Procopius. Valens at Caesarea.
366. Semiarian deputation to Rome satisfy Liberius of their orthodoxy. Death of Liberius. Damasus bp. of Rome.
Procopius defeated.
367. Gratian Augustus. Valens favors the Arians. Council of Tyana.
368. Semiarian Council in Caria. Famine in Cappadocia.
369. Death Of Emmelia. Basil Visits Samosata.
370. Death of Eusebius of Caesarea.
Election And Consecration Of Basil To The See Of Caesarea.
Basil Makes Visitation Tour.
371. Basil Threatened By Aria n Bishops And By Modes tus. Valens, traveling slowly from Nicomedia to Caesarea, arrives at the end of the year.
372. Valens attends great service at Caesarea on the Epiphany, Jan. 6. Interviews Between Basil And Valens.
Death of Galates.
Valens endows Ptochotrophium and quits Caesarea.
Basil Visits Eusebius AtSamosata.
Claim of Anthimus to metropolitan dignity at Tyana.
Basil Resists Anthimus.
Basil Forces Gregory OfNazianzus To Be Consecrated Bishop OfSasim a, And Consecrates His Brother Gregory To Nyssa. Consequent Estrangement Ofbasil And Gregory OfNazianzus.
Basil In Armenia. Creed Signed ByEustathius.
373. St. Epiphanius writes the "Ancoratus." Death of Athanasius.
Basil Visited ByJovinus OfPerrha, And BySanctissimus Of Antioch.
374. Death of Auxentius and consecration of Ambrose at Milan. Basil Writes The "De Spiritu Sancto."
Eusebius of Samosata banished to Thrace. Death of Gregory, bp. of Nazianzus, the elder.
375. Death ofValentinian. Gratian and Valentinian II. emperors. Synod of Illyria, and Letter to the Orientals.
Semiarian Council of Cyzicus. Demosthenes harasses the Catholics. Gregory of Nyssa deposed.
376. Synod of Iconium.
Open Denunciation OfEustathius By Basil.
378. Death ofValens, Aug. 9.
Eusebius of Samosata and Meletius return from exile.
379. Death Of Basil, Jan. I. Theodosius Augustus.
PROLEGOMENA SKETCH OF THE LIFE AND WORKS OF SAINT BASIL l.LIFE 1. Parentage And Birth Under the persecution of the second Maximinus, a Christian gentleman of good position and fair estate in Pontus, and Macrina his wife, suffered severe hardships. They escaped with their lives, and appear to have retained, or recovered, some of their property. Of their children the names of two only have survived: Gregory and Basil. The former became bishop of one of the sees of Cappadocia. The latter acquired a high reputation in Pontus and the neighboring districts as an advocate of eminence, and as a teacher of rhetoric. His character in the Church for probity and piety stood very high. He married an orphaned gentlewoman named Emmelia, whose father had suffered impoverishment and death for Christ's sake, and who was herself a conspicuous example of high — mined and gentle Christian womanhood. Of this happy union were born ten children, five boys and five girls. One of the boys appears to have died tin infancy, for on the death of the elder Basil four sons and five daughters were left to share the considerable wealth which he left behind him. Of the nine survivors the eldest was a daughter, named, after her grandmother, Macrina. The eldest of the sons was Basil, the second Naucratius, and the third Gregory, peter, the youngest of the whole family, was born shortly before his father's death. Of this remarkable group the eldest is commemorated as Saint Macrina in the biography written by her brother Gregory. Naucratius died in early manhood, about the time of the ordination of Basil as reader. The three remaining brothers occupied respectively the sees of Caesarea, Nyssa, and Sebasteia.
10 As to the date of St. Basil's birth opinions have varied between 316 and 330. The later, which is supported by Gamier, Tillemont, Maran, Fessler, and Bohringer, may probably be accepted as approximately correct. It is true that Basil calls himself an old man in 374, but he was prematurely worn out with work and bad health, and to his friends wrote freely and without concealment of his infirmities. There appears no reason to question the date 329 or 330.
Two cities, Caesarea in Cappadocia and Neocaesarea in Pontus, have both been named as his birthplace. There must be some amount of uncertainty on this point, from the fact that no direct statement exists to clear it up, and that the word naipic, was loosely employed to mean not only place of birth, but place of residence and occupation. Basil's parents had property and interests both in Pontus and Cappadocia, and were as likely to be in the one as in the other. The early statement of Gregory of Nazianzus has been held to have weight, inasmuch as he speaks of Basil as a Cappadocian like himself before there was any other reason but that of birth for associating him with this province. Assenting, then, to the considerations which have been held to afford reasonable ground for assigning Caesarea as the birthplace, we may adopt the popular estimation of Basil as one of "The Three Cappadocians," and congratulate Cappadocia on the Christian associations which have rescued her fair fame from the slur of the epigram which described her as constituting with Crete and Cilicia a trinity of unsatisfactoriness. Basil's birth nearly synchronizes with the transference of the chief seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium. He is born into a world where the victory already achieved by the Church has been now for sixteen years officially recognized. He is born into a Church in which the first great Council has already given official expression to those cardinal doctrines of the faith, of which the final and formal vindication is not to be assured till after the struggles of the next six score of years. Rome, reduced, civilly, to the subordinate rank of a provincial city, is pausing years. Rome reduced civilly, to the subordinate rank of a provincial city, is pausing before she realizes all her loss, and waits for the crowning outrage of the barbarian invasions, ere she begins to make serious efforts to grasp, ecclesiastically, something of her lost imperial prestige. For a time the center of ecclesiastical and theological interest is to be rather in the East than in the West.
11 2. — Education.
The place most closely connected with St. Basil's early years is neither Caesarea not Neocaesarea, but an insignificant village not far from the latter place, where he was brought up by his admirable grandmother, Macrina. In this neighborhood his family had considerable property, and here he afterwards resided. The estate was at Annesi, on the river Iris (Jekil — Irmak), and lay in the neighborhood of scenery of romantic beauty. Basil's own description of his retreat on the opposite side of the Iris matches the reference of Gregory of Nazianzus to the narrow glen among lofty mountains, which keep it always in shadow and darkness, while far below the river foams and roars in its narrow precipitous bed. There is some little difficulty in understanding the statement of Basil in Letter CCXVL, that the house of his brother Peter, which he visited in 375, and which we may assume to have been on the family property (cf. Letter CX. & i) was "not far from Neocaesarea." An analogy would be found in the statement of a writer usually residing in London, that if he came to Sheffield he would be not far from Doncaster.
At Annesi his mother Emmelia erected a chapel in honor of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, to which their relics were translated. It is possible that Basil was present at the dedication services, lasting all night long, which are related to have sent his brother Gregory to sleep. Here, then, Basil was taught the rudiments of religion by his grandmother, and by his father, in accordance with the teaching of the great Gregory the Wonder — worker. Here he learned the Catholic faith.
At an early age he seems to have been sent to school at Caesarea, and there to have formed the acquaintance of an Eusebius, otherwise unknown, Hesychius, and Gregory of Nazianzus, and to have conceived a boyish admiration for Dianius the archbishop.
From Caesarea Basil went to Constantinople, and there studied rhetoric and philosophy with success. Socrates and Sozomen say that he worked at Antioch under Libanius. It may be that both these writers have confounded Basil of Caesarea with the Basil to whom Chrysostom dedicated hisDe Sacerdotio, and who was perhaps the bishop of Raphanea, who signed the creed of Constantinople.
12 There is no corroboration of a sojourn of Basil of Caesarea at Antioch. Libanius was at Constantinople in 347, and there Basil may have attended his lectures.
From Constantinople the young Cappadocian student proceeded in 351 to Athens. Of an university town of the 4th century we have a lively picture in the writings of his friend, and are reminded that the rough horse — play of the modern undergraduate is a survival of a very ancient barbarism. The lads were affiliated to certain fraternities, and looked out for the arrival of every new student at the city, with the object of attaching him to the classes of this or that teacher. Kinsmen were on the watch for kinsmen and acquaintances for acquaintances; sometimes it was mere good — humored violence which secured the person of the freshman. The first step in this grotesque matriculation was an entertainment; then the guest of the day was conducted with ceremonial procession through the angora to the entrance of the baths. There they leaped round him with wild cries, and refused him admission. At last an entry was forced with mock fury, and the neophyte was made free of the mysteries of the baths and of the lecture halls. Gregory of Nazianzus, a student a little senior to Basil, succeeded in sparing him the ordeal of this initiation, and his dignity and sweetness of character seem to have secured him immunity from rough usage without loss of popularity. At Athens the two young Cappadocians were noted among their contemporaries for three things: their diligence and success in work; their stainless and devout life; and their close mutual affection. Everything was common to them. They were as one soul. What formed the closest bond of union was their faith. God and their love of what is best made them one. Himerius, a pagan, and Prohaeresius, an Armenian Christian, are mentioned among the well — known professors whose classes Basil attended. Among early friendships, formed possibly during his university career, Basil's own letters name those with Terentius and Sophronius.
If the Libanian correspondence be accepted as genuine, we may add Celsus, a pupil of Libanius, to the group. But if we except Basil's affection for Gregory of Nazianzus, of none of these intimacies is the interest so great as of that which is recorded to have been formed between Basil and the young prince Julian. One incident of the Athenian sojourn, which led to bitter consequences in after days, was the brief 13 13 communication with Apollinarius, and the letter written "from layman to layman," which his opponents made a handle for much malevolence, and perhaps for forgery. Julian arrived at Athens after the middle of the year 355. Basil's departure thence and return to Caesarea may therefore be approximately fixed early in 356. Basil starts for his life's work with the equipment of the most liberal education which the age could supply, he has studied Greek literature, rhetoric, and philosophy, under the most famous teachers. He has been brought into contact with every class of mind. His training has been no narrow hothouse forcing of theological opinion and ecclesiastical sentiment. The world which he is to renounce, to confront, to influence, is not a world unknown to him. He has seen heathenism in all the autumn grace of it decline, and comes away victorious from seductions which were fatal to some young men of early Christian associations. Athens no doubt contributed its share of influence to the apostasy of Julian. Basil, happily, was found to be rooted more firmly in the faith.
3. — Life At Caesarea & Baptism; And Adoption Of Monastic Life.
When Basil overcame the efforts of his companions to detain him at Athens, Gregory was prevailed on to remain for a while longer. Basil therefore made his rapid journey homeward alone. His Letter to Eustathius alleges as the chief reason for his hurried departure the desire to profit by the instruction of that teacher. This may be the language of compliment. In the same letter he speaks of his fortitude in resisting all temptation to stop at the city on the Hellespont. This city I hesitate to recognize, with Maran, as Constantinople. There may have been inducements to Basil to stop at Lampsacus, and it is more probably Lampsacus that he avoided. At Caesarea he was welcomed as one of the most distinguished of her sons, and there for a time taught rhetoric with conspicuous success. A deputation came from Neocaesarea to request him to undertake educational work at that city, and in vain endeavored to detain him by lavish promises. According to his friend Gregory, Basil had already determined to renounce the world, in the sense of devoting himself to an ascetic and philosophic life. His brother Gregory, however, represents him as at this period still under more mundane influences, and as shewing something of the self — 14 14 confidence and conceit which are occasionally to be observed in young men who have just successfully completed an university career, and as being largely indebted to the persuasion and example of his sister Macrina for the resolution, with which he now carried out the determination to devote himself to a life of self — denial. To the same period may probably be referred Basil's baptism. The sacrament was administered by Dianius. It would be quite consonant with the feelings of the times that pious parents like the elder Basil and Emmelia should shrink from admitting their boy to holy baptism before his encountering the temptations of school and university life. The assigned date, 357, may be reasonably accepted, and shortly after he was ordained Reader. It was about this time that he visited monastic settlements in Palestine, Mesopotamia, Coele Syria, and Egypt, though he was not so fortunate as to encounter the great pope Athanasius. Probably during this tour he began the friendship with Eusebius of Samosata which lasted so long.
To the same period we may also refer his renunciation of his share of the family property. Maran would appear to date this before the Syrian and Egyptian tour, a journey which can hardly have been accomplished without considerable expense. But, in truth, with every desire to do justice to the self — denial and unworldliness of St. Basil and of other like — minded and like — lived champions of the Faith, it cannot but be observed that, at all events in Basil's case, the renunciation must be understood with some reasonable reservation. The great archbishop has been claimed as a "socialist," whatever may be meant in these days by the term. But St. Basil did not renounce all property himself, and had a keen sense of its rights in the case of his friends. From his letter on behalf of his foster brother, placed by Maran during his presbyterate, it would appear that this foster — brother, Dorotheus, was allowed a life tenancy of a house and farm on the family estate, with a certain number of slaves, on condition that Basil should be supported out of the profits. Here we have landlord, tenant; rent, and unearned increment. St. Basil can scarcely be fairly cited as a practical apostle of some of the chapters of the socialist evangel of the end of the nineteenth century. But ancient eulogists of the great archbishop, anxious to represent him as a good monk, have not failed to foresee that this might be urged in objection to the completeness of his renunciation of the world, in their sense, and, to counterbalance it, have 15 cited an anecdote related by Cassian." One day a senator named Syncletius came to Basil to be admitted to his monastery, with the statement that he had renounced his property, excepting only pittance to save him from manual labor. "You have spoilt a senator," said Basil, "without making a monk." Basil's own letter represents him as practically following the example of, or setting an example to, Syncletius.
Stimulated to carry out his purpose of embracing the ascetic life by what he saw of the monks and solitaries during his travels, Basil's first of all thought of establishing a monastery in the district of Tiberina. Here he would have been in the near neighborhood of Arianzus, the home of his friend Gregory. But the attractions of Tiberina were ultimately postponed to those of Ibora, and Basil's place of retreat was fixed in the glen not far from the old home, and only separated from Annesi by the Iris, of which we have Basil's own picturesque description. Gregory declined to do more than pay a visit to Pontus, and so said to have caused Basil much disappointment. It is a little characteristic of the imperious nature of the man of stronger will, that while he would not give up the society of his own mother and sister in order to be near his friend, he complained of his friend's not making a similar sacrifice in order to be near him. Gregory good — humoredly replies to Basil's depreciation of Tiberina by a counter attack on Caesarea and Annesi.
At the Pontic retreat Basil now began that system of hard ascetic discipline which eventually contributed to the enfeeblement of his health and the shortening of his life. He complains again and again in his letters of the deplorable physical condition to which he is reduced, and he died at the age of fifty. It is a question whether a constitution better capable of sustaining the fatigue of long journeys, and a life prolonged beyond the Council of Constantinople, would or would not have left a larger mark upon the history of the Church. There can be no doubt, that in Basil's personal conflict with the decadent empire represented by Valens, his own cause was strengthened by his obvious superiority to the hopes and fears of vulgar ambitions. He ate no more than was actually necessary for daily sustenance, and his fare was of the poorest. Even when he was archbishop, no flesh meat was dressed in his kitchens. His wardrobe consisted of one under and one over garment. By night he wore haircloth; not by day, lest he should seem ostentatious. He treated his body, says 16 16 his brother, with a possible reference to St. Paul, as an angry owner treats a runaway slave. A consistent celibate, he was yet almost morbidly conscious of his unchastity, mindful of the Lord's words as to the adultery of the impure thought. St. Basil relates in strong terms his admiration for the ascetic character of Eustathius of Sebaste, and at this time was closely associated with him. Indeed, Eustathius was probably the first to introduce the monastic system into Pontus, his part in the work being comparatively ignored in later days when his tergiversation had brought him into disrepute. Thus the credit of introducing monasticism into Asia Minor was given to Basil alone. A novel feature of this monasticism was the Coenobium, for hitherto ascetics had lived in absolute solitude, or in groups of only two or three. Thus it was partly relieved from the discredit of selfish isolation and unprofitable idleness.
The example set by Basil and his companions spread. Companies of hard — working ascetics of both sexes were established in every part of Pontus, every one of them an active center of the preaching of the Nicene doctrines, and their defense against Arian opposition and misconstruction. Probably about this time, in conjunction with his friend Gregory, Basil compiled the collection of the beauties of Origen which was entitled Philocalia. Origen' s authority stood high, and both of the main divisions of Christian thought, the Nicene and the Arian, endeavored to support their respective views from his writings. Basil and Gregory were successful in vindicating his orthodoxy and using his aid in strengthening the Catholic position.
4. — Basil And The Councils, To The Accession Of Va lens.
Up to this time St. Basil is not seen to have publicly taken an active part in the personal theological discussions of the age; but the ecclesiastical world was eagerly disputing while he was working in Pontus. Aetius, the uncompromising Arian, was openly favored by Eudoxius of Germanicia, who had appropriated the see of Antioch in 357. This provoked the Semiarians to hold their council at Ancyra in 358, when the Sirmian "Blasphemy" of 357 was condemned. The Acacians were alarmed, and maneuvered for the division of the general council which Constantius was desirous of summoning. Then came Ariminum, Nike, and Seleucia, in 359, and "the world groaned to find itself Arian." Deputations from each of the 17 great parties were sent to a council held under the personal presidency of Constantius a Constantinople, and to one of these the young deacon was attached. The date of the ordination to this grade is unknown. On the authority of Gregory of Nyssa and Philostorgius, it appears that Basil accompanied his namesake of Ancyra and Eustathius of Sebaste to the court, and supported Basil the bishop. Philostorgius would indeed represent the younger Basil as championing the Semiarian cause, though with some cowardice. It may be concluded, with Maran, that he probably stood forward stoutly for the truth, not only at the capital itself, but also in the neighboring cities of Chalcedon and Heraclea. But his official position was a humble one, and his part in the discussions and amid the intrigues of the council was only too likely to be misrepresented by those with whom he did not agree, and even misunderstood by his own friends. In 360 Dianius signed the creed of Ariminum, brought to Caesarea by George of Laodicea; and thereby Basil was so much distressed as henceforward to shun communion with his bishop. He left Caesarea and betook himself to Nazianzus to seek consolation in the society of his friend. But his feeling towards Dianius were always affectionate, and he indignantly repudiated a calumnious assertion that he had gone so far as to anathematize him. Two years later Dianius fell sick unto death and sent for Bail, protesting that at heart he had always been true to the Catholic creed. Basil acceded to the appeal, and in 362 once again communicated with his bishop and old friend. In the interval between Visit to Constantinople and this death — bed reconciliation, that form of error arose which was long known by the name of Macedonianism, and which St. Basil was in later years to combat with such signal success in the treatise Of the Spirit. It combined disloyalty to the Spirit and to the Son. But countervailing events were the acceptance of the Homoousion by the Council of Paris, and the publication of Athanasius' letters to Serapion on the divinity of the two Persons assailed. To this period is referred the compilation by Basil of the Moralia.
The brief reign of Julian would affect Basil, in common with the whole Church, in two ways: in the relief he would feel at the comparative toleration shewn to Catholics, and the consequent return of orthodox bishops to their sees; in the distress with which he would witness his old friend's attempts to ridicule and undermine the Faith. Sorrow more personal and immediate must have been caused by the harsh treatment of Caesarea and the cruel imposts laid on Cappadocia. What conduct on the part of the Caesareans may have led Gregory of Nazianzus to speak of Julian as justly offended, we can only conjecture. It may have been the somewhat disorderly proceedings in connection with the appointment of Eusebius to succeed Dianius. But there can be no doubt about the sufferings of Caesarea, nor of the martyrdom of Eupsychius and Damas for their part in the destruction of the Temple of Fortune.
The precise part taken by basil in the election of Eusebius can only be conjectured. Eusebius, like Ambrose of Milan, a layman of rank and influence, was elevated per saltum to the episcopate. Efforts were made by Julian and by some Christian objectors to get the appointment annulled by means of Gregory, Bishop of Nazianzus, on the ground of its having been brought about by violence. Bishop Gregory refused to take any retrogressive steps, and thought the scandal of accepting the tumultuary appointment would be less than that of canceling the consecration. Gregory the younger presumably supported his father, and he associates Basil with him as probable sufferers from the imperial vengeance. But he was at Nazianzus at the time of the election, and Basil is more likely to have been an active agent.
To this period may be referred Basil's receipt of the letter from Athanasius, mentioned in Letter CCIV., 6. On the accession of Jovian, in June, 363, Athanasius wrote to him asserting the Nicene Faith, but he was greeted also by a Semiarian manifesto from Antioch, of which the first signatory was Meletius.
Valentinian and Valens, on their accession in the following year, thus found the Church still divided on its cardinal doctrines, and the lists were marked in which Basil was henceforward to be a more conspicuous combatant.