. either not Hubaist at nil, or hs conmpt in morals, was nowhere i' to be found in the petty treatises of the rhetoricians. For if those teachera of rhetoric included ia their art such a mul- titude of the most important subjects, why, he asked, were their books crammed with rules about proems and perorations, and such trifles (for so he called them), while about the modelling of statea, the composition of laws, about equity, I juaticc, int^jity, about mastering the appetites, and forming the morals of aumkind, not one single syllable was to be ' found iu their pagea 1 Their precepts he ridiculed in such a manner, as to show that the teachers were not only desti- tute of the knowledge which they arrogated to themselves, but that they did not even know the proper art and method of speaking; for he thought that the principal business of an orator was, that ha might appear to those to whom he spoke tp_bs such as he would wish to appear (that this was to be attained by a life of good reputation, on which those teachers of rhetoric had laid down nothing in then- precepts); and that the minds of the audience should be sfiected in such a i^uner as the orator would have them to be afTectedj an otjeot, also, which could by no means be attained, unlcaa the speaker understood by what methods, by what argument^ and by what sort of language the minds of men are moved in any particular direction; but that these matters were involved and concealed in the profoundest doctrines of phi- losophy, which these rhetoricians had not touched even with the extremity of their hps. These assertions Menedemua endeavoured to refute, but rather by authoriiiea than by tayvmejUs; for, repeating from memory many noble passages from the orations of Demosthenes, he showed that that orator, while he swayed the minds of judges or of the people by his eloquence, was not ignorant by what means he attained Mb end, which Channadas denied that any one could know without philosophy. ^ XX. " To this Charmadas replied, that he did not deny that Demosthenes was possessed of consummate ability and the utmost energy of eloquence; but whether he had these powers from natural genius, or because he was, oa was acknowledged, a diligent hearer of Plato, it was not what Demosthenes could do, but what the rhetoricians taught, that was the subject of inquiry. Sometimes too he wm I DB oratohe; or, I CBrried so far by the drift of bis discourse, as to maintain I that tLcre was ao art at all in speaking; and having Khown by Tarious arguments that we are so formed by nature as to be able to flatter, and to insinuate ourselves, aa suppliante, into the favour of those from whom we wish to obtain any- thing, as well as to terrify our enemies by menaces, to relate matters of fact, to confirm what we assert, to refute what is said against us, and, finally, to use entreaty or lamentation; particulars in which the whole faculties of the orator ore employed; and that practice and exercise sharpened the imderstanding, and produced fluency of speech, he rested his cause, in. conclusion, on a multitude of examples that he adduced; for first, as if stating an indisputable fact,^ he affirmed that no writer on the art of rhetoric was ever even moderately eloquent, going back as far as I know aot what Coi-as and Tisias," who, he said, appeared to be the in- ventors and first authors of rhetorical science; and then named a vast number of the most eloquent men who had neither learned, nor cared to understand the rules of art, and amongst whom, (whether in jest, or because he thought, or bad heard Homothiug to that effect,) he instanced me as one who had received none of their instructions, and yet, as be said, had some abilities as a speaker; of which two observations I readUy granted the truth of one, that I had never been instructed, but thought that in the other he was either joking with mo, or was mider some nuatake. But he denied there was any art, except such as lay in things that were known and thoroughly understood, things tending to the same object, and never misleading; hut that everytliing treated by the orators waa doubtful and uncertain; as it was uttered by those who did not fully understand it, and was heard by them to whom knowledge was not meant to be communioated, but merely false, or at least obsonre notions, ' Quon dedild aperd. As if CharmBdns liiinself had oolleeted all tlie writers on the art of rhetoric, that he might be in a conditiaa. tn prove what ha now usorted; or, as if the writers on tho Bit of rhctoria them- BelvsB hod purposely abttaintd from abteiDptiag to!» eloquent. But Chajmadaa waa very mud) in the wroDg; for Qurgiaa, Isoorstes, Prot»- gOTaa, TheophraBtus, aitd other teachers of rfketoric wore enxineot for eloqoonce. Prottai, ' Two Sicilians, said to have been the most socient writara on rhatoria " M Quintilian, iiL 1.
:i.] ON THE CaAHACTEIl OP THE ORATOH. 167 intended to live in their minds only for a short time. In short, he seemed bent on conTinoing mo that there was no art of speaking, and that no one could speak skilfully, or so as fully to illustrate a subject, but one who had attained that knowledge which is delivered by the most learned of the philoBophera. On which occasions Charmadaa used to say, with a passionate admiration of your genius, Crassua, that I appeared to him very easy in listening, and you most pertinacious in disputation.
XXI. " Then it was that I, swayed by this opinion, re- marked ia a little treatise' wbieh got abroad, and into people's hands, without my knowledge and against my wiU, that I had knowu many gpod speakersj but never yet auy one .^Jhat wafl'TruJy eloquent; for I accounted him a good speaker, wEo could express his thoughts with accuracy and perspi- cuity, according to the ordinary judgment of mankind, before an audience of moderate capacity; but 1 considered him alone eloqv^nt, who eouM in a more admirable and noble manner amplify and adoi-n whatever subjects he choae, and who em- braced in thought and memory hJI the principles of everything relating to oratory. This, though it may be difficult to ub, who, before we begin to apeak in public, are overwhelmed by canvassings for office and by the business of the forum, is yet within the range of possibility and the powers of nature. For I, as far as I can divine by conjecture, and as lar as I ean estimate the abilities of our countrymen, do not despair that there may arise at soroe time or other a person, who, when, ■with a keener devotion to study than we feel, or have ever felt, with more leisure, with better and more mature talent fbr learning, and with superior labour and industry, ho shall have given himself up to hearing, reading, and writing, may become such an orator as we desire to see, — one who may justly be called not only a good speaker, but truly eloquent; and such a character, in my opinion, is our friend Crassus, or some one, if sueh ever was, of equal genius, who, having heard, read, and written more than Crassus, shall he able to make some little addition to it" Here Sulpiciua observed: "That has happened by acci- dent, Crassus, which neither Cotta nor I expected, but which we both earnestly desired, — I mean, that you should in- BpeakBof it UKCtfUjpaoranddry, Bruti41; Ocat.G.
I I I okatorb; OB, [j 1 Bsnaibly glide into a discourse of this kind. For, oe we were coming hither, we thought it would bo a pleasure, if, while you were talking oa other matters, we might gather some- thing worthy to be remembered firom your conversation; but that you should go into a deep and full discussion on thia very study, or art, or faculty, and penetrate into the heart of it, was what we could scarcely venture to hope. For I, who, froiQ my early youth, have felt a strong affection for you both, and even a love for Crasaus, having never left his com- pany, could never yet elicit a word from him on the method and art of speaking, though. I not only solicited him myself, but endeavoured to move him by the agency of Druaus; on which subject you, Antoniue, {I speak but the truth,) never failed to answer my requests and interrogatories, and have very often told me what you used to notice iu speaking. And Mnee each of you has opened a way to these subjects of our research, and since Crassus was the first to commence thia discourse, do us the favour to acquaint ua fully and exactly what you think about the various kinds of eloquence. If wo obtain this Indulgence frona you, I shall feel the greatest obligation to this school of yours, Crasaus, and to your Tusculan villa, and shall prefer your suburban place of study to the famous Academy and Lyceum."
■ XXII. " Nay rather, Sulpicius," rejoined Crassua, " let us nak Aatonius, who is both capable of doing what you desire, and, as I hear yon say, has been accustomed to do so. As to mj'self, I acknowledge that I have ever avoided all such kind of discourse, and have often dechned to comply with your requests and solicitations, as you just now observed. This I did, not &om pride or want of politeness, nor becauae I was unwilling to aid your just and commendable aspirations, especially as I knew you to be eminently and above others formed and qualified by nature to become a speaker, but, in truth, from being unaccustomed to such kind of discuaaiona, and from being ignorant of those principles which are laid down as iastitutea of the art." " Then," said Cotta, " since Vfe have got over what we thought the greatest difficulty, to induce you, Crassus, to speak at all upon these subjects, for the rest, it will be om" own fimlt if we let you go before you have eiplained all that we have to ask" " I believe J must answer," says Crassus, " as is usually written i ' ' ON THE CHAItACTER OF THE ORiTOH, formulEe for entering ou inheritances,'^ concerning such points is I KNOW AND SHALL BE ABLE." " And wbich of U3," rejoined Cotto, " can be so presuming as to desire to know or to be tble to do anything that you da not know or cannot do?" "Well, then," returned Crassua, "on. condition that I may E&j that I cannot do what I cannot do, and that I may i tliit I do not know what I do not know, you may put quea- ticais to me at your pleasure," " We shall, then, first ask of yon," said Sulpicius, " what yon think of what Aiitonins has adTanoed; whether you thii that there is any art in speak- ing.! " " What! " exclaimed Crassus, " do you put a trifling question to me, as to some idle nnd talkative, though perhaps BtudiouB and learned Greek, O'U which I may speak accotd- ing to my humour? When do you imagine that I have ever regarded or thought upon such matters, or have not always rather ridiculed the impudence of those meu who, seated in the schools, would demand if any one, in a numerous assembly of peraous, wished to ask any questiou, and desire hiai to speak 1 This Gorgias the Leontine is said to havo first done, who was thought to undertake aud promise Bome- thing vast, in pronouncing himself prepared to speak on all subjects on wiuch any one should be inclined to hear him. But afterwards those men made it a common practice, and continue it to this day; so that there is no topic of such importance, or so unexpected, or so now, on which they do not profesa that they will Bay all that can be said. But if I hod thought that you, Cotta, or you, Sulpicius, were desirous to hear such matters, I would have brought hither soma Greek to amuse you with their manner of disputation; for there is with M. Piso,^ {a youth already addicted to this intel- lectual exercise, and one of superior talents, and of great afi'e(}- tion for me,) the paripatetic-Staseas, a man with whom. I am ■well acquainted, and who, as I peroeive is agreed amongst tha learned, is of the first eminence in his profeaaon."
' Oi'elionib'ia. An lieir was allowed a certuQ time to determine^ eentere, whether he would enter upon an eatate bequeathed to hiia, or not See Cio. ad Att xi. 12; liiL 4S; Oaiua, InBtit. ii. Il5i; Ulpian, Fragm. isii. 27; Hainecc. Sjntagm. IL U, 17.
' Msrcus PupiuB Piso CalpumiBUiua, to whom Cicero whs introduced bj his father, that he might profit b<^ hi3 learning and eiperieuce. See Aaoon. Pedian. ad Piaon. 2S; Cic. Brat. 67; Da Nat Deor. LT.ie.
I DE obatore; o XXIII, " Why do you speak to me," says ScktoIb, this Staseaa, this peripatetic 1 You must comply with the wiaheB of these young gentlemen, Craeaus, who do not want the common, profitleaa talk of any Greek, or any em^ declamation of the schools, tut desiro to know the opinit of a man in whose footsteps they long to tread, — one who the wisest and most eloquent of all men, who is not di*- tinguished by petty books of precepts, but is the first, both in judgment and oratory, in causes of the greatest conse- quence, and in this seat of empire and glory. For my part, as I always thought you & god in eloquence, so I have neTOT attributed to you greater praises for oratory than for polite- ness; which you ought to show oa this occasion especially, and not to decline a discussion on which two young men of auch excellent ability invite you to enter." " I am certainly," replied Craseus, " desirous to oblige them, nor shall I think it any trouble to speak briefly, as is my manner, what I think upon any point of the subject. And to their first question, (because I do not think it right for me to neglect your admo- . nition, Scieyola,) I answer, that t thinV ti^o.-^;.! nm^n-i.^p>4 nf ' speakii^ at fdl, or but very little; but that all the disputation I about it amongst the learned arises from a difference of opinion about the word. For if art is to be defined according to what Antonius juat now asserted,* as lying in things thoroughly understood and fully known, such as are abstracted &om the caprice of opinion and comprehended in the limits of soteno^. there seems to me to be no art at all in oratory; since. ""' the species of our forensic diction are various, and suited the common understanding of the people. Yet if those tbinj which have been observed in the practice and method Bpeaking, have been noted and chronicled by ingenious skilful men, have been set forth in words, illustrated in t several kinds, and distributed into parts, (as I think may possibly be done,) I do not understand why speaking may not be deemed an art, if not according to the exact definition of Antonius, at least according to common opinion. But whether it be an art, or merely the resemblance of au art, it is not^ indeed, to be neglected; yet we must imderatand that tht a other things of more consequence for the attainment ' Cap. I rant v.] ON THE CHAHiCTEB OF THE OKATOE. 171 SXIV. Antoniua then observed, that he was very strongly of opinion with Cnisaus; for he neither adopted such a defini- tion of art OS those preferred who attributed all the powers of eloquence to art, nor did he repudiate it eotirely, as most of the philosophera bad done, " But I imagine, Craesus," added he, " that you will gratify these two young men, if you will Bpeciftf those particulars which you think may be more con- duoive to oratory than art itself." " I will indeed mention, them," said he, " since I have engaged to do so, but must beg you not to publish my trifling remarks; though I will keep myself under such restraint aa not to seem to apeak like a master, or artist, but like one of the number of private citizens, moderately versed in the practice of the forum, and not altogether ignorant; not to have offered anything from myself, but to have accidentally &llen in with the course of jonr oouversation. Indeed, when I was a candidate for office, 1 used, at the time of canvaasiag, to send away Sctevola from me, telling him I wanted to be foolish, that is, to solicit with flattery, a thing that cannot be done to any purpose unless it be done foolishly; and that he was the ouly man in the world in whose presence I should least hke to play the fool; and yet fortune has appointed him to be a witness and spectator of my folly.* For what is more foohsh than to speak about peaking, when speaking itself is never otherwise than foohsh, except it is absolutely necessary i " " Proceed, however, Craa- 8u^" eaid Sctevola; " for I will take upon myself the blame which you fear."
XXV. " I am, tten, of opinion," said Cmasus, " that naturg. itTid gnnilin in the first pla«e coatribute most aid to speaking; and that to those writers on the art, to whom Antonius jtut now alluded, it was not skill and method in speaking, but natural talent that was wanting; for there ought to be cer- tain livply pnarnnr. ill thP_!I!H!?j ^^"jj-''1P'^'^''''''^"diriIi whinh may be acute to invent, fertile to esplain and adorn, and strong and retentive to remember; and if any one imagines that these powers may be acquired by art, (which is fiJse, for ' See Val. Mai. It. E. L ' Animi otyue tngenU celera giiidam motvt. Thia' aense of motai, bm EUendt oUerrCH, da borrowed from the Glreek kIhiiii, by which tha pMosophers intimntod an adive pavier, ae, without motiaa, all things would ismBin uaahauged, and nothiog be senerated. See Hattii. ad DE ohatobe; or, it is veiy well if they can be animated and eioited by art; but they certainly caanot by art be ingrafted or instilkd, since they are all thd gifts of nature,) what will he say of thoee qualities which are certainly boru with the man hii self, Tolubility of tongus, tone of yoioe, strength of inD( and a peculiar couformatiou and aspect of the whole cou tenanoe and body f I do not say, that art cannot improve ia theso particulars, (for I am not ignorant that what is good may be made better by education, and what ia not very good may be in some degree polidied and amended;) but there are some pereona so heaitating ia their speech, so inhar- moniouB in their tone of voice, or so unwieldy and rude in the air and movements of their bodies, that, whatever power they possess either from geninB or art, they can never be reckoned in the number of accomplished apeakeis; while there are others so happily qualified in these respects, so eminently adorned with the gifts of nature, that they seeai uot to have been bom like other men, but moulded by some divinity. It is, indeed, a great task and enterprise for a person to undertake and profess, that while every one else ia silent, he alone must be heard on the most important subjects, and in a large assembly of men; for there ia Bcarcaljr any one present who is not sharper and quicker to discovt defects in the speaker than merits; and thus whatever ofiem the hearer effaces the recollection of what is worthy of praiaB? I do not make these observations for the purpose of altogether deterring young men from the study of oratory, even if they be deficient in some natural endowments. For who does not perceive that to C. Ctelios, my contemporary, a new man, the mere mediocrity in speaking, which he was enabled to attain, was a great honour 1 Who docs not know that Q. Tariua, your equal in age, a clumsy, uncouth man, has obtained his great popularity by the cultivation of euch faculties as he has?
XXVI. " But as our inquiry regai'ds the couplkte OHiit we must imagine, in our discussion, an orator from whoi every kind of fault is abstracted, and who is adorned with every kind of merit For if the multitude of suits, if the variety of causes, if the rabble and barbarism of the forum, afford room for even the moat ■wretched Bpeakers, we muat not, for that reason, take our eyes from the object of our iv«^B ndS 1 as ioimH 'ith ■ I on THE OHARACTEH OF THE OHATOR. 173 inquiry. In those arts, in which it is not indispenBable 1 usefiilneaa that ia soaglit, but hberal amuBement for tho mind, how nicely, how almost fastidiously, do we judge! For I there arc no suits or controTersies which can force taeo, though they may tolerate indifferent orators in the forum, to endure also bad actors upon the stage. The orator there- fore must take the moat studious precaution not merely to satisfy those whom he necessarily must satisfy, but to seem worthy of admiration to those who are at liberty to judge disinterestedly^: If yon would know what I myself think, 1 will express to you, my intimate irienda, what I have hitherto nerer mentioned, and thought that I never should mention. To me, those who speak best, and speak with the utmost ease and grace, appear, if they do not commence their smeeches.5Fith some timidity, ivnd show some confusion* in theCfxcrdiunt, to have almost lost the sense of shame, 1 though it ia impossible that such should not bo the ease;*. L^ £or|the better qualified a man is to speak, the more he fears 1 the difficulties of speaking, the uncertain success of a speech, ' and the expectation of the audience^ But he who can pro- | duce and deliver nothing worthy of his subject, nothing worthy of the name of an orator, nothing worthy the attention of his audience, seems to me, though he be ever so oonftised while he ia speaking, to be downright shameless; for we ought to avoid a character for shamelessness, not by testi^ing shame, but by not doing that which does not become us. But the speaker who has no shame (as I see to be the case with many) I regard as deBerving, not only of rebuke, but of personal castigation. Indeed, what I often observe in you I very frequently experience in myself that I turn pale in the outset of my speech, and feel a tremor through my whole I thoughts, as it were, and limbs. When I was a young man, I I was on one occasion so timid in commencing an accusation, I that I owed to Q. Maximus^ the greatest of ohligalion immediately dismissing the nsseoibly, as soon aa he sa absolutely disheaitened and incapacitated through fear." Here they all signified assent, looked significantly at c ' Tamttsi id accidie nun poltit. " QuaniTia id £eri Doa paseit, nt qui optJia6 dicit, ia eiordio non parturhatur." Pnvit.
' He Bsems to be QuintuB Fabiua MaiimuB Eburoun, wto was consul A.D.o. 638, and nbo, it ia probabla, presided oa pnetor On the ocoaiian '' 4l which CrasHM apeaka. Sllmdl.
DE OB&TORE; OB, another, and began to talk together; for there was a won- derful modeety in Crassus, which however was not only no disELdvantoge to bis oratory, but even an assistance to it, by giving it the recommendation of probity.
XXVIL Antonius soon after said, " I have often observed, as you mention, Cravens, that both you and other most aecomplished orators, although in my opinion none nas ever equal to you, have felt some agitation in entering upon their speeches. When I inquired into the reason of this, and considered why a speaker, the more ability he poesesaed, felt the greater fear in speaking,;! foucd that there were two causes of such timidity: oae, that those whom esperienca and nature had formed for speaking, well knew that the event of a speech did not always satisfy expectatioo even in the gi'eatest orator^ and thus, as often as they spoke, they feared, nut without reason, that what sometimoB happened might happen then; the other (of which I am often in the habit of complaining) is, that men, tned and approved in other arts, if they ever do anything with less Bucoess than usual, are thought either to have wanted in- clination for it, or to have failed in perfonnicg what they knew how to perform from ill health.J ' Eoscius,' they say, 'would not act to-day,' or, 'he was indisposed.' But if any deficiency is seen in the orator, it is thought to proceed from want of senee; and want of sense admits of no excuse, beoause nobody is supposed to have wanted sense because he ' was in- 1 disposed,' or because ' such was his inclination.' Thus wsV undei^o a severer judgment in oratory, and judgment tea pronounced upon us as often as we speak; if an actor it^ once mistaken in an attitude, he is not immediately con- sidered to be ignorant of attitude in general; but if any &ult is found in a speaker, there prevails for ever, or at least for a very long time, a notion of his stupidity.
XXVIII. "But in what you observed, as to there being many things in which, unless the orator has a full supply of them from nature, he oannot be much assisted by a master, I agree with you entirely; and, in regard to that point, I have always expressed the highest approbation of that emi- nent teacher, Apollonius of Alabanda,* who, though he tau^t ON THE CHARACTER OP THE ORATOR.