XXXVI. Cat^ua then obaerved, "It is as you say, Antonius, that most philosophers deliver no precepts of eloquence, and yet are prepared with something to say on .any subject But Aristotle, he whom I admire more than any of them, has set forth certain topics from which every line of argument may be deduced, not only for the disputatious of philosophy, but even for the reasoning which we use in pleading causes; from whose notions your diacourae, Anto- nius, has for soipe time past not varied; whether you, from a resemblance to that divine genius, hit upon his track, or 'whether you have read aud made yourself master of his writings; a supposition indeed which seems to be more pro- bable than the other, for I see that you have paid more atten- tion to the Greek writers than we had imagined." " You shall bear from myself," said he, " Catulus, what is really the c&ae: I always thought that an orator would be more agreeable to the Eoman people, and better approved, who should give, above all, as little indicatiou as possible of artifice, aud none at all of having studied Grecian literature. At the same time, when the Greeks undertook, professed, and executed fiuoh gi'eat tiings, when they offered to teach mankind how to penetrate the most obscure sttbjecta, to live virtuously and - to speak eloquently, I thought it the part of an irrational animal rather than a man, not to pay them some degree of attention, and, if we cannot venture to hear them openly, for fear of diminishing our authority with our own fellow- citizens, to catch their words at least by listening privately, ' and hearkening at a distance to what they stated; and thus I have acted, Catulus. and have gained a general notion of the arguments and subjects of all their writers."
XXXVII. "Really aud truly," said Catulus, "you have steered your bark to the coasts of philosophy with the utmost s if you. had been approaching some rock of i I DE oratore; or, lawfiil desire,' though this country has never despised philo- Bophy. For Italy was formerly full of Pythagoreans, at the time when part of thia oountrj was called Great Greece:^ (whence some report that Numa Pompilius, one of our kings, "Was a Pythagorean; though, he lived many years before the time of Pythagoras; for which reason he ia to be accounted the greater man, as he had the wisdom and knowledge to regulate our Btat«, almost two ceuttiries before the Greeks knew that it had ariseu ia the world;) &nd certainly thia country never produced men more renowned for glorious actions, or of greater gravity and authority, or possessed of more polite learning thau Fublius Africanus, Cains Lceliu% and Lucius Fnrius, who always had about them publioly the most learned men from Greece. I hare often heard them say, that the Athenians had done what was very pleasing tA. them, and to many of the leading men in the city, in scudii^-, ■when they despatched ambassadors to the senate about infci' portant coucems of their own, the three most illuatriou* philosophers of that age, Carnoades, Critolaus, and Diogenes; who, during their stay at Rome, were frequently hearf. lec- turing by them and others. And when you had such authori- ties as these, Antouiua, I wonder why you should, like Zethua in Pacuvius'a play," almost declare war against philosophy." "I have not by any means done so," replied Antonius, " for I have determined rather to philosophize, like Ennina's NeoptolemiiB, a little, since to he absoluUlt/ a philosa/}/ter is not agreeable to me. But my opinion, which I think I have clearly laid down, is this: ]I do not disapprove of such studies, if they he but modeffltely pursued; hut I think that ' That the aUuaion is to the Ulands of tha Sirens, who triad to allura TJlySBflB to listen to their song, the comraenta,tors have already observed. ^tlenill.
' Quum wo! in Aoc jfrnte Maipui ilia Qrrrcia, "when Great QreacB was in (or Bmong) this people." In kac gaitc, i e. ia ItKlis, among tho ItalmoB, or in Italy. EllewU.
' In one or the tragedies of PucutIus ware repreaented two trothera, Ampbion and Zethus, the formar fond of philosophy, muBio, and the reSned arbi, the other of a reugheF diapOBitioii. addicted to war aoil dmpising Ecienufl. To thia story Horace dso itlludeB, Ep. i. IS. il Gratia sic fnitrum gemlnoruin Amphionia atqua Zelhi, disstluib, donee suspecta severo Conticuit Ijra. Fmtemis ueasisse putntur MoribuB Ampbion. Jl.
4 ^^Bniviii.]
.] OS THE CHARAOTEB OP TEE OBiTOB, 265 the reputation of that kind of learning, and all suspicion oE artifice, is prejudicial to the orator with those who have the decision of afiUirs; for it diminiahes the authority of the speaker and the credit of his speech."'i XXXVIII. " But that our conyersation may return to the point from which it digressed, do you observe that of those three illustrious philosophers, who, as you said, came to Eome, one was Diogenes, who profe^ed to teach the art of reasoning well, and distiuguishiog truth from falsehood, which he called by the Greek name SioXtitTuof, or logicl In tiiis art, if it be an art, tliere are no directions how truth may be disoovered, but only how it may be judged^ For everything of which we apeak we either affirm to be or not to be;' and if it be expressed absolutely, the logicians take it in hand to judge whether it he true or ialse; or, if it be expressed con- ditionally, and quidificationa are added, they determine whe- ther such qualifications are rightly added, and whether the couclusion of each syUogism is true; and at last they torment theraselvea with their own subtilties, and, after much dis-' <[nisition,find out not only what they themselves cannot rescilve, \ but even arguments, by which what they had before begun. I to resolve, or rather had almost made clear, is i^iu involved \. in obscurity. Here, then, that Stoic' can be of no assiBtanoo * to-me, because he does not teEich me how to find out what to say; he is rather even an impediment to me; for he finds many difficulties which he says can by no means be cleared, and unites with them a kind of language that is not clear, easy, and fluent; but poor, dry, succinct, and concise; and if any one shall approve such a style, he will approve it with the acknowledgment that it is not suited to the orator. For our mode of speaking is to be adapted to the ear of the mul- titude, to fascinate and excite their minds, and to prove matters that are not weighed in the scales of the goldsmith, but in the balance, as it were, of popular opinion; we may therefore entirely dismiss an art which is too silent about the invention of ailments, and too full of words in pronouncing judgment on them. That Critolaus, whom you mention as ' In this passage I adopt tlia correctian, or rather reatonitiaii, of Ellendt, Nam et ointie, quod daqttimur, fit, ut id ant csce ijicamiu liKt MM) toe. AH other modem editions for Jit ha.va fia _f Diogeaee, and other Stoiea like him. Primst.
DE ORATORB; OR, having come hither with Diogenes, niight, I fiincy, have been of more aaaietiuiGe to our gtudiea, for he was out of the Bohool of that Aristotle from whose method I seem to you not greatly to differ. Between this Aristotle, (of whom I have read, as well that book in which he esplaina the rhe- torical Bjst«EQS of all who went before him, as those in which he gives us some notions of his own on the art,) between him, I say, and the professed teachers of the art, there appeared to me to be this difference; that he with the same acuteness of intellect with which he had penetrated the qualities and nature of things throughout the universe, flaw into everything that pertained to the art of rhetoric, which he thought beneath him; but they, who thought this art aloua worthy of cultivation, passed their whole Hves in con- templating this one subject, not with as much ability as be, but with constant practice in their single pursuit, and greater devotion to it. As to Cameades, that extraordinary force aad variety of eloquence which he possessed would be ex- tremely desirable for us; a man who never took up any argument in his disputations which he did not prove; never attacked any at^ument that he did not overthrow. But this is too arduous an accoioplishment to be expected &om those who profess and teach rhetoric. I_XXXIX. " If it were my desire that a person totally iUitei-ate should be instructed in the art of speaking, I would wUlingly send him to these perpetual workers at the same employment, who hammer day and night on the siime anvil, and who would put his literary food into his mouth, in the Kmailest pieces, minced as fine as possible, as nurses piifc theirs into the mouths of children. But if he were one who had lad a liberal education, and some degree of practice, and seemed to have some acuteness of genius, I would instantly conduct him, not where a little brook of water was confined by itself, but to the source whence a whole flood gushed forth; to an instructor who would show him the seats and abodes, as it were, of every sort of ailments, and would illustrate them briefly, and define them in proper terms. Pot what point is there iu which he can hesitate, who shall Bee that whatever is assumed in speaking, either to prove or to refute, is either derived from the peculiar force and nature of the subject itself, or borrowed from sometbii^™ OS TKB OHABAOTBB OP THE ORiTOR.
foreign to iti From ita owu peculiar force: as when it inquired, ' what the nature of a whole thing is," or ' a part of it,' or ' what name it has,' or whatever belongs to the whole matter. From what is foreign to it: as when circumstances which are extrinsic, and not inherent in the nature of the thing, are enumerated in cotubi national If tba inquiry r^ard the whole, its whole force is to he explained by a defi- nition, thus: 'If the majesty of a state be its greatness and dignity, he is a traitor to its majeBty who delivers np an army to the enemies of the Roman people, not he who deiivere np him who haa violated it into the power of the Eoman people.' But if tbe-^estien7respect only a part, the matter must be managed by partition in this manner: 'Either the senate should have been obeyed concerning the safety of the republic, or some other authority should have been constitute!^ or be should have acted oa his owd judg- ment; to constitute another authority had been haughty; to act on his own jndgmout bad been arrogant; he had therefore to obey the direction of the senate.' If ^w« argue frcHs -a-uame, we may express ourselves like Carbo: ' If he be a consul who consults the good of his country, what else has OpimiuB done^' But if we argue from what is intinwitely oonneeted witb t&o-eul^«et, there are many sources of argu- ments and common-places; for we shall look to adjuncts, to general views, to particulars falling under general views, to things similar and dissimilar, contrary, consequential; to such. as agree with the case, and are, as it were, forerunners of it, and Buch as are at variance with it; we shall investigate the causes of circumstances, and whatever baa arisen from those causes; and shall notice cases that are stronger, or similar, or weaker. XL. " From things closely relating to the subject argu- ments are drawn thus: ' If the utmost praise is to be attri- buted to Slial duty, you ought to be moved when you see Quintus Hetellus mourn so tenderly-' FroBL general consider- Atiens, thus: ' If magistrates ought to be under the power of the Eonian people, of what do you accuse Norbania, whose tribuneship was subaervient to the will of the state!' Fiom pactioulara- that fall under the general consideration, thus: ' If all who consult the interest of the public ought to ba dear to us, certainly military commanders should be pecu- liarly dear, by whose conduct, courage, and exposure to I "UlrShATORB; OB, danger, we preserve our own safety and the dignity of the empire.' From similarity, thus; ' If wild boasts love their offspring, what affeotioa ought we to feel for our children^' Proffi diBiimilftn^, thue: ' If it be the character of barbarianB to live an it were for a short season, our plans ought to have respect to perpetuity.' In both modes of comparison, from similarity as well as dissimilarity, examples are taken from the acts, sayings, and successes of others; and fictitious nor- ratives may often be introduced. VtotA eoalraries, argil' ments are drawn thus: ' If Gracchus acted in a detestably OpimiuB has acted ia a glorious, manner,' Spoia-eubaeqwent ciioumstaneea, thus: ' If be be slain with a weapon, and you, his enemy, are found on the very spot with a bloody sword, and nobody but you is seen there, and no one else bad any reason to commit the act, and you were always of a daring character, what ground is there on which we can possibly doubt of your guilt T From concurrent, antecedent;" and repuguaat dFoumetaiioes, tlius, as Crasaus ai'gued when he was quite a young man; 'Although, Carbo, you defended Opimius, this audience will not on that account esteem you a good citizen; for it ie clear tb:it you dissembled and had other views, because you oft£n, in your harangues, deplored the fiite of Tiberius Gracchus, liecause you were an accom- pHoe in the death of PubUus Atricaaus, because you proposed a law of such a nature ia your tribuneship, lieoause you have always dissented from good members of the state.' Froia4he causes of things, thus; 'If you would abolish avarice, you must abolish the parent of it, luxury.' From whatever- Mkea from those causes, thus: ' If we use the mouey in tbe tresisury as well for the services of war as the ornaments of peace, let ua take care of the public revenues.' Stronger, weaker, aud parailel inetancea, we shall compare thus; from a stronger we shall argue in this way, ' If a good name be preferable to riches, and money is pursued with so much industry, with how much more exertion is glory to be soughtT Ecoia-a weakei^ thus: " Sinoe marely for a em all acquaiatance' silie ^^m Be takes thia womui'a death so nearly, what ^H If ho himself had loved! vfhab would ho fosi.^H For me, his father! > ^^H f THB CHARACTER OF TEE ORATOR. 269 " From a pftrallel case, thiis: ' It is uatural to tbe same chanuJter, to be rapaoioua of tho public money, and to be profuBe of it to the public prejudice.' But instances borrowed from eitroneoUB eircmnstancea arc auch as are not supported by their own strength, but Homewhat foreign; as, 'Thisistrue; for Quintus Lutatiug has affirmed it:' ' Thia is falsej for an examination boa been made:' ' Tbia muat of neceesity follow; for 1 ahall read the writinga;' on which head I spoke fully a, little while ago." XLI. I have been as brief iu the exempli- fication of these matters as tbeir nature would permit For OB, if I wished to make known to any due a quantity of gold, that was buried in separate heaps, it ought to be sufficient if I told him the signs and marks of the plaees, with the know- ledge of which he might dig for himselC and find what he ■wished with very little trouble, and without any mistake; so I wished to specify such marks, as it were, of arguments, as would let him who seeks them know where they are;^ what remains is to he brought out hy industry and thought. What kind of arguments is most suitable to any particular kind of CQuee it requires no exquisite skill to preaciibe, hut merely moderate capacity to determine. For it is not now my design to set forth any system of rhetoric, but to com- municate to men of eminent learning some hints drawn from mj own experience. These common-places, therefore, being fixed in tie mind and memory, and called forth on every subject proposed to be discussed, there will bo nothing that can escape the orator, not merely in matters litigated in the forum, but in any department of eloquence whateTer. But if he shall attain such success, as to aeem to be what he would wish to aeem, and to affect the minds of those before whom he pleads in such a maimer aa to lead or rather force them in whatever direction he pleases, he will assuredly require nothing else to render him accomplished in oratory.
L^We now see, that it is by no means sufficient to find out what to say, unless wo can handle it skilfully when we have &>und it. 't'his treatment ought to be diversified, that he who ' I follow Eileadt'B teit: Sie has tgo at'ffiMaealOTiim voltii tiolai qnre- tenti tiemimitrarc uii irinl. Orolliue and moBt other editors liBVa Sio Jiof ego argumeHtorum nam nutat, qvis ilia milii quareHli deiiumstrmU, "wnteutiH perineptd," ns Ellecdt observes; for itwoB aot what An- famiuH himself kaew that was to be apecifiad, but how he irithod. ^Hamers to be maieteJ.
listens may neither discover any artifice, nor ba tired and satiated with uniformity. Whatever yon advance, should bo laid down as a propositiua, aud you sbonld show wliy it ia so; and, irom the same premises, you should sometimes form, a conclusion, and Bometimes leave it to be formed by the hearer, and make a transition to something else. Frequently, how- ever, you need make no proposition, but show., by the reason- ing which you shall use, what proposiCiou might have been made. If you produce a comparison to anything, you should first confina what yoa ofier as a comparison; and then apply to it the point in question. In general, you should shade the distinctive points of your arguments, so that none of your hearers may count them; aud that, while they appear dear as to matter, they may seem blended in your mode of speaking on them.
XLlI. " I run over these matters cursorily, as addrt men of learning, and, being myself but half-learned, that may at length arrive at matters of greater consequence, there is nothing, Catulus, of moro importance in spe than that the hearer should be favourable to the speake be himself bo strongly moved that he niay be iuflueai more by impulse and excitement of mind, than by judgmei or rejection. For mankind make &r more determinations through hatred, or love, or desire, or anger, or grief, or joy, OT hope, or fear, or error, or some other affection of mind, than from regard to truth, or any settled maxim, or prinoiplt right, or judicial form, or adherence to the laws, anything else, therefore, be agreeable to you, let w to consider these points."
"There seems," observed Catulus, "to be still some littto wanting to those matters which you have discussed, Antoniua, Bometliing that requires to be explained beforo you pro- ceed to what you propose." " What is it 1" asked Antoniua. " What order," replied Catulus, "and arrangement of argtt- mente, has your approbation; for in that department yon always seem a god to me." " You may see hqw much of a god I am in that respect, Catulus," rejoined Antonius; "for I assure you the matter would never have come into my thoHghta if I had not been reminded of it; so that you may Buppoae I am generally led by mere practice in speaking, ob nther perhaps by chance, to fix on that arrangement of lCter of the ohatoh.
matter by which I seem at times to produce si However, that very point which I, because I had i of it, passed by as I should by a person unknown t snob, efficacy in oratory, that nothing is more conducive to viotory; but yet you seem to me to have required from mo prematurely an acnoimt of the order and disposition of the orator'a material; for if I had placed all his power in argu- mentation, and in proving his eaae from its own inherent merits, it might be time to say something on the order and arrangement of hia arguments; hut as three heads specified by me, and I have spoken on only one, it will ba proper, after I have attended to the other two, to consider, last of all, about the general arrangement of a speech. 1 — XLHI. "T-t contributes much to succeaa in speaking, that ' he morals, principles, conduct, and lives of those who plead I causefl, and of those for whom they plead, should be such aa to merit esteem; and that those of their adversaries shouidba \ Buch as to deserve censure; and also that the minds of those | before whom the cause is pleaded should he moved as much as pofffiible to a &vourable feeling, as well towards the speakertts towards him for whom he speaks. The feelings of the hearero are conciliated by a person's dignity, by hia actions, by the character of his life; particulars which can more easily ba adorned by eloquence, if they really exist, than be invented, if they have no eiiatecce. But the qualities that attract &VDur to the orator are a soft tone of voice, a countenance eipreamve of modesty, a mild manner of speaking; so that if' he attacks any one with severity, he may seem to do so . imwiUingly and from compulsion. It is of peculiar advantage that indications of good nature, of liberality, of gentleness, of' piety, of grateful feelings, free from selfishness and avarice, should appear in him; and everything that ohDracterizea men y of probity and humOity, not acrimonious, nor pertinacious, nor litigious, nor harsh, very much conciliates benevolence, uid alienates the affections from those in whom such qualities are not apparent. The contrary qualities to these, therefore, are to be imputed to your opponents. This mode of address _iB extremely excellent in those t^uses in which the mind of the judge cannot well be inflamed by ardent and vehement incitation; for energetic oratory is not always desirable, but often smooth, Bubmiesive, gentle language, which gains much i DE OHATOKB; OB,