As regards the conscious representation of the self, there is little to add to the bare statement of the text. In the author's experi- ence, the organic complex that means the intellectual or active self is usually kinaesthetic, and that which means the emotive self usually visceral. It has been argued that the organic sensations are especially fitted to carry the meaning of selfhood, because they are always present, and because they remain practically un- References for Further Reading 547 changed throughout the lifetime of the individual. Unless, how- ever, the organic background is the self, apart from any further self-meaning, the argument must be judged fallacious. The or- ganic sensations are of great importance as members of associative constellations, and as the sensory elements in many intensive feel- ings; for both these reasons they are fitted to carry the self- mean- ing, as they are fitted to carry many other meanings; but their own persistence in consciousness is not necessarily an awareness of persistence, and they may point as definitely to an external reality as they point to an internal self. — The visual image of the self may be schematic, of the kind described on p. 528, or it may be pictorial; in the latter case it is usually, so far as the author's data go, the picture of the body in some unaccustomed dress or posture.1 Multiple Personality. — Much interest attaches to cases of what is called double or multiple personality, in which the same individ- ual shows, at different periods, marked differences of intelligence, emotivity and conduct. The psychological key to these phenomena, which cannot here be discussed, lies in the changes of person- ality manifested by normal individuals under changed conditions References for Further Reading §§ 138-141. A general review of recent experimental work upon the psychology of thought will be found in the author's Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought-processes, 1909, Lects. Hi., iv. The phrase 'conscious attitude1 was first employed, at the suggestion of K. Marbe, by A. Mayer and J. Orth, Zur qualitativen Untersuchung der Association, in Zeits. f. Psych, u. Physiol, d. Sinnesorgane, xxvi., 1901, 1 ff. The most zealous champion of the thought-element is K. Buhler, Ueber Gedanken, in Arch. f. d. ges. Psych., be., 1907, 297 ff. The feeling of reality is discussed by M. W. Calkins, An In trod, to Psych., 1901 or 1905, 124 ff.; cf. Titchener, op. cit., 251 ff. Experimental studies of conscious attitudes in general, and of the attitude of belief in 1 Every student of psychology should know Mach's picture of the self-in- tuition of the ego: Beitrdge zur Analyse der Empfitidungen, 1 886 [tr. 1897], 14. The author would have reproduced it, were it not that he hopes by this reference to extend the circle of Mach's readers.
548 Thought particular, will shortly be published in the American Journal of Psy- chology by H. M. Clarke and T. Okabe.
§ 142. W. Wundt, £>/<? Sprache, 1904; O. Kiilpe, Outlines of Psych., 1909, 13 ff. On thought without language, cf. F. Galton, Arithmetic by Smell, in Psych. Review, i., 1894, 61 ff., and James' account of the thought constructions of deaf-mutes, Princ. of Psych., i., 1890, 266 ff.; Thought before Language: a Deaf-Mute's Recollections, in Philos. Rev., § 143. Titchener, op. cit., Lect. i.; T. Ribot, The Evolution of General Ideas, tr. 1 899.
§ 144. Arts. Abstraction and Generalisation, in Diet, of Philos. and Psych., i., 1901, 6, 408; O. Kiilpe, Versuche iiber Abstraction, in Bericht iiber den I. Kongress f. experiment. Psychol, 1904, 56 ff.; A. A. Griinbaum, Ueber die Abstraktion der Gleichheit, in Arch, f d.
§ 145. G. M. Whipple, An Analytic Study of the Memory Image and the Process of Judgment in the Discrimination of Clangs and Tones, in American Journal of Psychology, xii., 1901, 409 ff.; xiii., 1902,219 ff.; F. Angell, On Judgments of i Like'' in Discrimination Experiments, ibid., xviii., 1907, 253 ff. On the report of unqualified difference, O. Kiilpe, Outlines of Psych., [1893] 1909, 348; L. W. Stern, Psychol, d. Verdnderungsauffassung, 1898, 251. On absolute im- pression, the author's Exper. Psych., II., ii., 1905, 304 f.
§ 146. O. Kiilpe, op. cit., 36 ff.; W. James, Princ. of Psych., i., 1890, ch. iv.; B. R. Andrews, Habit, in American Journal of Psychology, xiv., 1903, 121 ff.; W. H. Pyle, An Experimental Study of Expectation, ibid., xx., 1909, 530 ff.; A. Mosso, Fatigue, tr. 1904; C S. Myers, A Text-book of Exper. Psych., 1909, 183 ff. On the elementary phe- nomena of practice and fatigue, W. Wundt, Princ. of Physiol. Psychol., i., tr. 1904, 75 ff. An immense amount of work has been done upon the subject of fatigue; but the interests of the investigators have been physiological or psychophysical or practical, rather than strictly psycho- logical. A recent study by C. S. Yoakum {An Experimental Study of Fatigue, 1909; Psych. Rev., Mon. Suppl. 46) is noteworthy as empha- sising the introspective problem (93 ff.), though the writer is primarily concerned with theory. This paper gives a selected bibliography of the topic (125 ff.). Tests of fatigue, together with the practical or 'applied' psychology of many of the experiments described in the present work, are discussed by G. M. Whipple Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, 1910.
§ 147. W. Wundt, Physiol. Psychol., in., 1903, 572 ff.; Outlines of References for Further Reading 549 Psych., tr. 1907, 302; W. B. Pillsbury, The Psychology of Reasoning, 1910. The three definitions are from H. J. Watt, Exper. Beitr'dge zu ciner Theorie d. Denkens, in Arch. f. d ges. Psych., iv., 1905, 416, 410; A. Messer, Experimetitell-psychologische Untersttchungen iiber d. Denken, ibid., viii., 1906, 105, 93; G. Storring, Exper. u. psycho* pathologische Untersuchnngen iiber das Bewusstsein d. Giiltigkeit, ibid., xiv., 1909, 42. Cf. Titchener, Thought-processes, 1909, Lect. v.
§ 148. W. James, op. cit., i., 291 ff.; H. Ebbinghaus, Grundziige d. Psych., [., 1905, 8 ff. On multiple personality, T. Flournoy, From India to the Planet Mars, tr. 1900; M. Prince, The Dissociation of a Personality, 1906.
CONCLUSION §149. The Status of Psychology. — The psychological text-books that embody the results of experimental investi- gation fall into three main groups. At the one extreme are systems of psychology, in which the experimental re- sults appear as illustrative of general psychological prin- ciples. At the other extreme are books which deal topically with ' the various departments of experimentation, and therewith make an end. Midway between these two classes stand the books — of which the present Text-book aims to furnish an example — which emphasise the necessity of an experimental control of introspection, but which seek, further, to systematise the experimental data and to relate the psychology of the laboratory to that of the pre-experi- mental and non-experimental treatises.
All three types have their advantages, and all three have their disadvantages. The psychologist whose systematic thinking is firmly outlined will write with a perspective; his work will be logically coherent and duly proportioned; and the need of illustrative observations will constantly suggest problems, which his students will be interested to solve. On the other hand, he will run the risk of forcing facts to suit his system, and of neglecting facts that refuse classification under his rubrics. The psychologist who confines himself to an exposition of the experiments so far made has the great advantage that he never transcends observation; his work gives us the tested materials out of Conclusion 5 5 1 Conclusion 5 5 1 which a science may some day be built; but he is also at a disadvantage in that he lacks perspective, makes too much of this and too little of that, fails to catch the suggestion of new experimental issues from the thought of men to whom the laboratory is foreign or abhorrent. The psy- chologist who takes a middle position has the advantage of perspective and the advantage of the facts. His diffi- culty is to bring the experimental results — results of all degrees of accuracy, obtained from widely different points of view, and oftentimes partial and incomplete — into con- nection with what he regards as established psychological principles; to square them with what seems stable in the psychologies of tradition and reflection: and his danger is the danger of premature systematisation.
So long as men differ in temperament, so long shall we have books of these different kinds. All of them, in their own measure and degree, stand in the direct line of psy- chological development; for it is beyond question that the psychology of the future will be an experimental psychology. Temperament, however, is an extremely variable thing, and prompts to many other modes of psychological ex- pression. There are still books, and good books, that pay scant attention to the experimental method. There are books that deal with all the collateral problems of psychol- ogy (pp. 43 ff.). There are books that seek to give a scientific account of the things and selves of common sense (p. 15). A representative library of psychology — books and pamphlets and magazines — is both costly and exten- sive; a representative knowledge of psychology, in all its forms and branches, is probably beyond the reach of any individual.
All this means, not that the student of psychology 552 References for Further Reading should be disheartened, — for there is no single chapter of psychology that is closed, that cannot be amended and extended by further work, — but that he should choose his special subject within the general field. And if he decides to throw in his lot with the experimentalists of the human laboratory, he may be assured that he could not join their society at a more favourable time. The experi- mental method, having conquered the whole domain of nature and of life, is pressing forward to the highest reaches of mind, to thought itself. It needs no gift of prophecy to foretell that the first half of this century will mark an epoch in the history of scientific psychology.
References for Further Reading § 149. Instances of books of the first type are W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology, tr. 1907; F. Jodl, Lehrbuch der Psychologic, 1903; of the second type, E. W. Scripture, The New Psychology, 1897; C. S. Myers, A Text-book of Experimental Psychology, 1909; of the third type, O. Kiilpe, Outlines of Psychology, 1909; H. Ebbinghaus, Grundzuge der Psychologie, i., 1905; ii. (a mere fragment: the work was un- finished at the author's untimely death). 1908. On the science of things, cf. A. Meinong, Untersuchungen zur Gegenstandstheorie und Psychologie, 1904; on the science of selves, M. W. Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, 1910.
Abstraction, 529 f.
Accent, subjective, 289, 345 Accommodation, visual, 87; sensations from, 3U f-; of attention, 297; ex- perimental demonstration of, 297 f.; time of, 2g8 f.; flexibility of, 299 Ache, sensation of, 155 Action, definition of, 44S; genesis of, 450 IT.; nature of earliest, 452 ff.; classification of, 458 ff ■; impulsive. 458 f.; ideomotor and sensorimotor, 458 f.; voluntary, 459, 542; selective, 459; volitional, 460 f.; instinctive, 462 ff.; as motived by affection, 468 f.
Acuity, visual, 324 f.
Adaptation, law of visual, 72; general, 72; local, 72 f.; and colour mixture, 73; after-effects of, 73 f.; and con- trast, 78; theory of, 92; of sense of smell, 124 f., 126 f., 136 f.; method of progressive, 126 f.; theory' of, 127; of taste, 136 f., 141; of pressure, 147; of temperature senses, 151 f.; absent, in pain sense, 154; affective, 229 f.; in fluctuation of visual at- tention, 292 f. \: thesiometry, 322 f. \ ■• thetics, experimental, 500 IT.
tion, as mental element, 48, 226 f.; qualities of, 226, 228, 250 ff.; attri butes of, 228; adaptation of, 229 f.; resembles organic sensation, 230 f., 2O0 f.; lacks clearness, 231 f.; shows opposition of qualities, 232 f., 242; as subjective, 233 f.; as non-localisable, 234 f-. 23s f.; sensuous and idea], I; as attribute of sensation. 237; as a qu ility, 237 f.; as unanalysed organic sensation, 237 ff.; as relation, 239; as attitude, 239 f.; experimental investigation of, 240 ff.. 286; stability of, 242 f.; dependent on disposition of consciousness, 258; dependent on resultant sensory at- tributes, 259; physiological substrate of, 260 ff.; as motive to action, 468 f.; as reflexly excited sensation, 476, 48;. 494; in James' theory ' of emotion, 477 f.; see Feeling After-image, positive visual, 68; nega-. tive, 72, 74 f.; theory of, 92; of taste, 137 f.: of pressure, 148; of tempera- ture, 151 f.; of swimming sensation, 174, 177; of vestibular pressure, 1S0; of image, 199; visual, in fluctuation of attention, 293; of movement, 360; memory, 399 f.
Alphabet, blind, 289 Ampulla; of semicircular canals, 173; sensation from, 174 ff.; theory of, 176 f.; as sense-organs of shrill tones, 181 Analogy, use of, in psychology, 30 ff.
Analysis, psychological, 37 f.; various aims of, 58; of perception, 350 f., 369, Animal psychology, 10, 27; method of, Anosmia, partial, 127 Apperception, 286, 301; doctrine of, Apprehension, direct, 410 ff.; disturb- ance of, 412 f.
Association, Aristotle's rules of, 374: traditional laws of, 374 S-. 379 i- '• two meanings of term. 377; law of. 378 ff.; not an affective phenomenon, 37S f.; implies attention, 379, 583. 38(1; initiated by similars, 379; ex- perimental study of, 380 ff., 443 S-; remote, 385, 388, 402; direct, 385, 388, 402; ret n »a< t ive, 385, 402; incidental, 385 f.; mediate, 386; modes of, 389; Index of Subjects Association — Continued and perception and idea, 389 f.; suc- cessive and simultaneous, 390; clas- sification of, 390 f.; introspection of, 391 f.; conscious mechanism of, 394; physiological mechanism of, 394; verbal, 397 f.; breaking up of, 401 f.; individual differences in, 405.
Attention, required by observation, 20, 24 f.; possible without feeling, 230, 267, 278, 283; various meanings of term, 265 f.; implies redistribution of conscious contents, 266 ff.; re- lation of, to kinaesthesis, 267, 281 ff.; development of, 268 ff., 275 f., 281 ff.; conditions of primary, 268 ff.; pri- secondary or active, 272 f., 275 f., 281 ff.; due to complexity of nervous organisation, 272; derived primary, 273, 27s f., 282 f.; relative complexity of primary and secondary, 266; in- creases sensory intensity, 279 f.; genetic relation of, to affection, 281 ff.; experimental investigation of, 284 ff.; problems of, 286 f.; range of, 287 ff.; duration of, 291 ff.; degree of, 293 ff.; accommodation of, 2g6 ff.; inertia of, 299; physiological substrate of, 299 ff.; in retinal rivalry, 320; and qualitative perception, 349 f.; and association, 379. 383, 386; in recitation of learned series, 384; and imaginal type, 405; and memory, 413 f.; and imagination, 422; in simple reaction, 432 ff.; in emotion and sentiment, 499; implies Attributes of mental elements, 50 ff., Audition, 93 ff.; theory of, no ff.; late development of, 181 f.
Beats, tonal, 104 ff.
Bias, influence of nervous, on con- sciousness, 274 f.; see Predisposition; Set, nervous Black, qualities of, 59 f.; production of, 65, 90; a positive sensation, 65; behaviour of, in adaptation, 75; in contrast, 76, 92; theory of, 90, 205 Blind, spatial perception of, 308, 331, 338; warning sense of, 331 f.
Calm, 250 ff.
Canals, semicircular, function of, 175 f., Causation, in physics, 37, 41; cannot be employed for explanation in psy- chology, 39 Change, index of, 343 f.
Chemistry of smell, 1 20 f.; of taste, length, 66; and energy of light, 66 f.
Classification of psychology, 43 ff.; of mental elements, 49 f.; of sensations, 55 ff.; of visual sensations, 59 ff.; of auditory sensations, 93 ff.; of ol- factory sensations, 117 f.; of tastes, 130 ff.; of action, 458 ff.; of emotion, Clearness, as attribute of sensation, 53, 278 f.; lacking, in affection, 231 f.; characteristic of focal processes in attention, 266 ff., 277 ff.; variations in focal, 290; implies nervous facilita- Cold, sense of, 145, 149 ff.; spots, 149 ff.; sensations of, 149 f.; end-organs of, 150; paradoxical sensation of, 151 Colour, sensations of, 60 ff.; antagonis- tic or complementary, 68 f., 103, 232 Colour-blindness, normal, of indirect vision, 83; abnormal, 83 ff.; partial, 83 ff., 91; why difficult of detection, 84; two types of, 85; total, 85 Colour-equations, how far independent of energy of light, 71, 80 Colour-mixture, laws of, 68 ff., 121 ff.; corollaries to, 70 f.; and adaptation, 73; theory of, 91; binocular, 321 Colours, primary, 85 ff.; principal, 86; fundamental, 87; invariable, 87, 90, Colour-tone, 54, 61 Combination, form of, 371 ff., 409, 518 Combinational tones, 103, 106 ff.; theory of, 112 Index of Subjects Common sense, its view of the world, 9 f., 12 f.; and scientific psychology, io f.; as past philosophy, n; postu- lates substances, 15 ff.; confuses mental with physical, 40, 202 f.; science of, 551 f.
Comparison, 532 ff.; of sensations and sense-distances, 216 ff., 361 f.
Complex, associative, 446 Conation, 467 f.
Cones, retinal, as end-organs of day- light vision, 88, 90, 324; perception of extents by single, 327 Congruity with consciousness, as deter- minant of primary attention, 269 ff., Consciousness, as self-awareness, 17 f.; as cross-section of mind, iS f.; as direct object of psychological study, 19; in what sense recurrent, 19; defective, 29; social, 29; interpreta- tion of the animal, 32 f.; levels of, 276 ff., 281 ff.; goal of experimental investigation, 285; variations in, 290; associative, 389 ff., 444 f.; recognitive, 407 ff.; memory, 413 ff.; imagina- tive, 421 ff.; action, 448 f.; appear- ance of, 451 ff., 457; instinctive, Consonance, theories of, 361 f.
Contact, sensation of, 146 Context, conscious, as aid to classifica- tion, 57; see Meaning Contrast, visual, 76 ff.; laws of, 76; of shadows, 77 f.; and adaptation, 78; theory of, 91 f.; of tastes, 137, 140 f.; affective, 140, 232 f.; asso- ciation by, 375 f.
Convergence, sensations from, 314 f.
Correspondence, retinal, 309 f.
Cramming, 406 Custom, as witness to the distribution Daltonism, 84 f.
Daylight vision, 79 f.
Degree of attention, 293 ff.; and effort, 294 f.; and distraction, 295; plan for measurement of, 295 f.; tests of, 296 Depression, 250 ff.
Depth, perception of, 306 ff.; tactual, 306 ff.; visual, 308 ff.; monocular, 315; indirect criteria of, 313, 316; direct criteria of, 315 f.; limen of visual, 324 f. Derangement, mental, 29 f., 34 f. Diaphragm, sensitivity of, 183 f. Difference, experience of, 535 f. Differences, just noticeable, 213 ff. Differential psychology, 27 f., 403 ff., Dimensions, spatial, 307 f. Direction, law of identical visual, 325 Discrimination, 532 ff.; temporal, 342 Dissociation, 401 f. Distance, interocular, 311, 324 f. Distraction of attention, 295 f. Duration, as attribute of sensation, 53, 340 ff.; of affection, 228 Duration of attention, 291 ff.; visual, 291 ff.; cutaneous, 291 f.; auditory, Ear, an analysing organ, 100; descrip- tion of, 109 f.; kinaesthetic organs of internal, 173 f.
Effort, as kinaesthetic sensation, 163, 170; and degree of attention, 294 f.
Elements, mental, 46 ff., 49 ff., 372 f.; three classes of, 47 f.; relational, 48 f., 512 ff.; thought, 49, 508 ff.; groups of, 49 f.; attributes of, 50 ff.; isola- tion of, 50 f.; psychological and psy- chophysical, 126 Emotion, nature of, 471 ff., 491; experi- mental study of, 472 f.; and feeling, 473; James-Lange theory of, 474 ff., 476 ff., 481 ff.; anticipations of, 479 f.; and instinct, 480; and organic sensa- tions, 481 ff.; unmotived, 481 f.; truncated forms of, 483; expression of, 484 ff.; forms of, 489 ff.; composite, Empathy, in optical illusions, 333; in imagination, 417, 423; in experience of relation, 514 liquation, personal, 429 Index of Subjects Ergograph, 246 f.
Expansion, afiective, 495 Expectation, 537 f.
Experience, as subject-matter of science, 2, 6, 9; shows lines of cleavage, 3 f.; dependent and independent aspects of, 6 ff., 10, 13 f.; as process, 15 Experiencing person, definition of, 10, 16 Experiment, definition of, 20; instances of psychological, 20 ff.; in animal psychology, 31; in social psychology, 33 f.; in psychology of the abnormal, 34 f.; instances of quantitative, 203; 208 ff.; see Affection, Association, Attention, Emotion, Intensity Explanation, 36, 39; definition of, 41 Expression, method of affective, 243 ff.; instruments used by, 244 ff.; results from, 248 f., 253 f., 484 f., 503; com- bination of, with method of impres- sion, 249 Extent, as attribute of sensation, 54, Eye, in plants, 28; description of, 87 f.; hypothetical, without antagonistic pro- cesses, 205 f.; spatial field of, 305 f.; see Fovea Eye and ear method, 429 f.
Eye-movement, importance of, for per- ception of depth, 313 ff.; in optical illusions, 333 ff.; in perception of movement, 358 Familiarity, feeling of, 407 ff., 411, 413, Fear, morbid, 30 Feeling, cannot be made object of at- tention, 22 f., 231 f.; lost, in visceral anaesthesia, 185, 262; various mean- ings of term, 225 ff.; contrasted with sensation, 225 f., 228 ff.; definition of, 228; mixed, 235 f.; experimental study of, 240 ff.; tridimensional theory of, 250 ff.; correlation found by, 253; biological significance of, 263; and emotion, 473; see Affection Fixity, neural, 456 ff., 463 Form, perception of, 327 £.
Formants, 113 structure of, 88, 324 Fundamental colour, 87; tone, 101 Fusion, in qualitative perception, 349; tonal, 351 f.; theory of, 352 ff.; and consonance, 361 f.; in Wundt's doctrine of association, 393 ff.; of emotions, 492 f.
Galton whistle, 90, 107 function of, 91; seen at blind spot, Health, feeling of, 163 f., 189 Hearing, coloured, 195 Heat, physics and psychology of, 8, 10; and energy of light, 66 f. Hunger, 188 f.
Idea, and perception, 376; of associa- tionism, 376 f., 528 f.; and association of ideas, 389 f.; nature of, 393; ab- stract or general, 525 ff.; aggregate, Illusion, of size and weight, 7, 156, 171 Illusions, geometrical, of sight, 7, 332 ff.; of reversible perspective, 334 f.; tem- poral, 342 f.; of movement, 358; of memory, 424 ff.; affective, 496 f.
Image, as mental element, 48; compared with sensation, 197 ff.; part of, in perception, 364 ff., 371; course of, in consciousness, 396 ff.; has attribute of intensity, 398; experimental study of, 397 i-, 399; in memory, 414 ff.; in imagination, 424; organic, 494; composite, 526 f.
Index oj Subjects Images, double, 300; disparity of, and tridimensional vision, 310 ff.
Imagination, and perception, 365; and memory, 416 ff.; psychology of, Imagination, image of, 416 ff., 418 ff.; theory of, 420 f.
Impression, method of affective, 241 ff.; combination of, with method of ex- pression, 249; tells against tridi- mensional theory, 254 f.
Impression, nervous, conditions of, 382 ff.; and length of series, 383 f.; and repetition, 383; and distribution in time, 383 f., 402; and reading by whole or part, 384; relation of, to learning, 384; in childhood, 402 Impulse, 458 f.
Inattention, 282 Indirect vision, 81 ff.; parallax of, 315; acuity of, 324 Inertia of attention, 299 Infant, movements of, 454 Influence, mutual, of mind and body, ir, I2f., i3ff.
Inhibition, as affective quality, 252; Inhibition, retroactive, 387; terminal, Innervation, sensation of, 169 ff., 441 Insistence, as resultant or secondary attribute of sensation, 55, 204; as condition of affection, 259 Instinct, 462 ff.; classification of, 463 f.; and emotion, 480 Instruments, musical, 101 f.
Intensities, of tone, 204, 206; of taste, 203 f., 208 f.; of smell, 204, 206; of Intensity, as attribute of sensation, 53, 201 ff.; experimental study of, 201 ff., 285; as independent variable, 204 ff.; of visual sensation, 204 ff.; as con- dition of affection, 259; as deter- minant of primary attention, 268 ff.; increased by attention, 279 f.; as attribute of image, 398 Interaction of mind and body, 13 Introspection, experimental, the method of psychology, 20 ff.; and inspection, 18, 20 ff., 24, 33; as retrospection, 22 f.; habit of, 23; general rules for, 25; in animal psychology, 31 ff., 36; in social psychology, 33 f., 36; in psychology of the abnormal, 34 ff.; and mental measurement, 215; fa- voured by instruction to introspect, 446; affective, 472 f.
Joint, structure and sense-organs of, 160 f., 165; sensations from, 164 f.; part played by, in perception, 166 ff.
Judgment, psychology of, 540 ff.; im- plies secondary attention, 542 f.; and voluntary action, 542; experience of,