sentries at the door, and his spies scattered through the hall. He said in substance this: We have yet left us German bodies, large, strong, and healthy to the core, a marvellous language all our own and not agglomerate of many tongues like English, and a pure blood never mixed with other races. We have wrought out the Reformation, the greatest task the human spirit has yet achieved, and our ancestors call to us not to let the work they died in doing be in vain. We carry the light and the hope of the world. If we sink, freedom and humanity sink with us. There is one plain and only one way for patriotic recreation. It is not primarily by armies or legislation, but we must rise like Bonal by the slow and sure processes of national education. We must live for our own children, training their bodies and minds as was never done in the world before. Schools have been the one product in which the German spirit has already excelled. We have set the human spirit free, have preached, taught, lived, and believed in ideas and ideals. We must make education our supreme task, our duty of duties. We must realize the platonic republic where the wisest ruled and educa- tion was the chief problem of statesmanship. This policy must be our destiny. Our leaders must be priests of Truth and in her pay. They must think fearlessly in all directions; must investigate and discuss, do and suffer all in the world's great holy cause of science and learn- ing. To this end he invoked all ranks and classes. For thus not only the united Fatherland, long hoped for, long delayed, could become real, but men of a higher type and order of existence than had yet appeared would be developed.1 1 Addresses to the German nation.
500 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE Thus Fichte, idealist and enthusiast, spoke and was heard as no man had spoken or been heard since Luther. For him education was the one divine cause in the world; a new dispensation of religion itself. In accordance with his conceptions, but by far more practical men than he, the University of Berlin was founded and a national policy was denned making education the test of all. Along these lines the Fatherland has become the most effectively governed state, and its army the strongest since ancient Rome. Just as the Reformation slowly pervaded other lands, so Germany has set the educational fash- ions for most nations of continental Europe, not to speak of Japan and South America. Her methods and ideas have been especially transforming since the war of 1870 made manifest the strength this policy had developed in half a century. Her conquests are now spreading to the world of industry and trade, and France has shown her true greatness by wise imitation of her conqueror.
Upon this introduction followed discussions, details, refer- ences, reproductions, and so through the year, five hours a week. These young teachers went out full of their mission. They were potentialized to do their best and worthiest, feeling that their cause indeed was the chief one in the world.
A model school, the very idea of which is essentially op- posed to a practise school, or an experiment station or peda- gogic laboratory, where tyros learn their trade, should be the core of every kind of pedagogium. It should be first in time, and seek to be Weal, a Mecca where the best processes can be demonstrated object-lesson-wise to visitors, and developed slowly upward from the lowest grades with teachers enough so that each can take time to demonstrate and answer questions to strangers, and from these shorter and then longer courses should be the germ of the normal school, which should grow out of it, and not vice versa. Every teacher here should be more or less specialized. In this respect I would try to imitate the German gymnasia, which permit only university graduates to teach boys from eight to nine on, and most topics should be taught intensively and with but little reference to teaching it to children, but that precious little should be by the special expert with the equivalent of a Ph.D. degree. About this, as the cloister and cathedral schools grew up about the medieval churches, as some of the best modern churches are now de- veloping about social settlements, and as the best equipped trade schools are under the wing of the great industries, so my teacher college should develop about these grades of an INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 501 Utopian school, and the training of apprentices should be developed very gradually and at first be by the grade teach- ers of the school in superfluous hours which the corps should be numerous enough to have. But here I would stop, and not train for high school grades. The aspirations of independent and isolated normal schools to do this should be generally checked. That some of these institutions aspire to do such work seems to me rather an abandonment of their chief func- tion, when we reflect that the younger the age of the pupils the more attention needs to be paid to adapting knowledge to them; hence the most truly normal work must always serve the lower grades. The experience of other countries, notably of the College of Preceptors in London and the Pddagogium in Vienna, shows that training for secondary education es- pecially needs an academic atmosphere. Several of the larger normal schools in this country are, no doubt, in these days of educational federation and combination, soon to join universi- ties, just as everywhere within the last few years special schools of medicine, law, theology, and technology are being organized or affiliated, and sometimes moved to universities. The other schools of town and night schools should serve as practise schools, where these normal pupils should serve their apprenticeship, including if possible a little work in hospitals and with defectives.
Every normal school should have a small and a few central museums, or perhaps the state should have a large pedagogical one. Russia has a vast central one now in its forty-first year, where conferences, lectures, and expositions of toys and games are held, demonstrations of all kinds of hygienic and illustrative apparatus are given, and which publishes memoirs and makes special researches. France has a museum with a room each set apart for geography, natural history, physics, chemistry, model school laboratories, desks in all thirty rooms, a library of 50,000 titles, building plans, ideal tables for science; its publications make it a center of information; its collections comprise foods, flora and fauna, and maps; and it has many thousand lantern slides in circulation on all kinds of topics, with many branches in the provinces. Some schools in Europe make a point of collecting exhaustively plants, birds, animals, rocks, soils, trees, etc., of the locality as a basis of 502 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE instruction, and some have curious and suggestive alcoves or rooms set apart for things that children have made spontane- ously. Perhaps, if most were likely to serve in country regions, I would try to develop an ungraded model school. Some stu- dent pupils might teach in night schools, but with not too much consciousness of the presence of the critic teacher. I would have them practise every year and every week, and rise, either up the grades, beginning with the lowest, or grow in inde- pendence from helpers to control of a room, or possibly in some places up the social classes, according to their teaching ability, scholarship, etc. But in place of much criticism I would en- large the time of observation in all the grades of the model school, for women are more intuitive as well as more imitative than men, and more in danger of being either spoiled or intro- verted by too much self-consciousness about their work. The summer vacation should be far shorter than now, both for the sake of the children, that relapse in three idle months, and for the convenience of visitors whom a summer session for their benefit should aid in attracting. All should be done in the light of a wide comparative study of other, even foreign institutions, and under the wing of a university with a strong pedagogic department.
This latter is also prone to its own peculiar forms of decay and perversion.1 The academic professor of pedagogy should not be chiefly a traveling drummer of recruits for the freshman class or an inspector of preparatory schools, nor an agent for placing the graduates of the institution he represents. He should not limit his interest to feeders or even to secondary grades of education, but should fit for expert work in super- intendence, college pedagogy, normal chairs, and should offer courses that all intending high school teachers would wish to attend, should extend his interest to the lowest grades, to insti- tutions for defectives and criminals, and represent the largest view of education. The president should allow him the widest academic freedom and not discourage him for discussing the highest university problems, even though his own methods and policy be criticized. He should not, like most German pro- 1 See A. J. Kinnaman: Pedagogy in our Colleges and Universities. Ped Sem., September, 1902, vol. ix, pp. 366-373.
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 503 fessors of education, be a proselyte, for his own department for a special type of philosophy, or for either the sciences or humanities as against the other. He should engage in orig- inal educational research and always have one or more prob- lems under investigation. He should have a model high school, and here all professional training for teachers in these institu- tions, as well as in normal schools, should be given. He should know philosophy, but be a doctrinaire in no school of it. That this subject receives such scanty attention in colleges for women, a majority of whom teach for a time, is in striking contrast to the views of the late President Francis A. Walker, who urged in an able paper that the study of education should be central and that the subjects immediately connected with it should be the only higher education of women, even for those not destined to teach, both for its supreme culture value in itself and for its. practical worth for life.
(E) High Schools. The first public high school was estab- lished in Boston in 1821. In 1860 there were forty in the United States; in 1880 less than 800, and in 1900, 6,005, with 519,251 pupils, their number having increased about one hun- dred and fifty per cent, that of schools over one hundred and thirty per cent, and that of teachers more than one hundred per cent since 1890. The increase in the number of studies has probably kept pace with the above increment, as has that of the proportion of those who take Latin and algebra. In secondary schools of all kinds there were, in 1900, 719,241 adolescents, or six and one-half times as many as in all State and private colleges, universities, and technological schools combined. In 1889-90 less than three-fifths of one per cent of our population was enrolled in secondary schools; in 1899- 1900, nineteen-twentieths of one per cent was so enrolled, and in eighteen States this proportion was more than one per cent. " If the figures at hand are correct, this is not only by far the largest number, but by far the largest proportion of any nation to be found pursuing studies of this grade, Prussia showing a little less than one-half of one per cent and France a trifle less than Prussia." 1 While the percentage of the population in 1 Elmer E. Brown: The Making of our Middle Schools. Longmans, Green 504 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE private schools increased in the decade from 0.23 to 0.25, the percentage in the public high schools increased in the same period from 0.36 to 0.70. As Professor Brown well says, " For the past ten or twelve years we have seen middle school prob- lems occupying a central place in the thought of the great cul- ture nations. We have had a decade or more of middle school reforms. The great mile-stones in the progress of these re- forms have been the December Conference at Berlin in 1890, and the revision of the Prussian curriculums which followed; the report of our own Committee of Ten in 1893; the report of the English Parliamentary Commission on Secondary Edu- cation in 1895, and the establishment of the English Board of Education to give effect to recommendations which this com- mission presented; the report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements of our National Educational Asso- ciation in 1899; the report, in 1899 and 1900, of the commis- sion appointed by the French Chamber of Deputies; the Brunswick Declaration and the Kiel decree, of 1900; the establishment of the College Entrance Examination Board and the Commission on Accredited Schools in the year just past (1902). It is a most remarkable record, and warrants the belief that we have ju:t been passing through one of the greatest formative epochs in the history of secondary schools. In America it has been not a time of crisis, as in the nations of Europe, but rather a time of unparalleled progress."
The cry against taxation for those who do not send to school is as old as the district school, was raised, too, by the parochial school, and was a few years ago greatly in vogue against the extension of the high school movement as well as against State universities. But now no one doubts their con- stitutionality, both voter and taxpayer have adopted them, and they seem destined to become free local colleges for the people. Statistics show that in the West, while many of them are no more local in their attendance than some colleges, they appeal more strongly to local pride. The age of high school pupils has also increased. With three years for law and three or four for medicine and theology, now pretty well established, all agree that the average young man is too late in entering upon his work. Yet few or none find the lost two years, that have been sought or found in every earlier and later stage, to INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 5°5 be here, but nearly all advocate an expansion policy for high schools. President Harper would shorten the elementary school from eight to six years and extend the high school downward. It is possible for most children in this country to leave the school forever at fourteen, common law require- ments being thirteen or fourteen, and parents often represent children of twelve as having fulfilled these requirements. Most do leave at this age never to return, and many of them are never again interested in educational pursuits.1 Some would add the freshman and perhaps sophomore years from the col- lege, thinking the high school could do the work as well and that this would increase their dignity. In a recent census of principals made by Professor Bolton, of Iowa, seventy-five per cent favored adding two years at the top, the chief reason be- ing that more would be benefited because many would stop whenever the high school ended. Some thought the course was not long enough for those who do not go to college. Some claimed that the State ought to educate till a legal majority of twenty-one, and a few of these institutions already confer the A. B. degree.
In the high schools of this country the girls conspicuously outnumber the boys. This disparity is increasing, and it is rare indeed to find a class in which the sexes are equal. From 1890 to 1897 the number of boys in the public schools of this country averaged about forty-one per cent; this pro- portion has changed but little, and does not vary very greatly in different parts of the country as a whole. The proportion of boys decreases very rapidly during the course.2 Girls pre- ponderate especially in English, Latin, algebra, and French classes, so much so that in a few places boy sentiment decrees it good form to avoid some of these as " sissy " courses.
In 244 high schools of Massachusetts, McDonald estimated that in 1897 tnere were 33>369 pupils, of whom 13,082 were in the first year, 9,151 in the second, 6,343 in the third, and 4,820 in the fourth and higher classes, the percentages being respectively 38, 27, 19, and 15. In Missouri this percentage 'Age at which Children Leave School, by F. H. Law. Ed. Rev., January, 'Where are the High School Boys? by F. E. DeYoe and C. H. Thurber 71 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE shrunk from 41.4 per cent in the first to 9.7 per cent in the fourth year; in Kansas City from 40 per cent in the first to 14 per cent in the fourth, and these figures are typical.1 Greenwood found that the older pupils who enter the high schools of this country are more liable to fail or leave during the first year than those who enter younger.
The causes of leaving most often specified by girls are sickness, while most boys leave to go to work. Poverty seems to weaken children's interest in education and their apprecia- tion of its value, for ideal elements are lacking and short- sighted material considerations come into power; G. E. Gay found thirty-four per cent left from loss of interest in the work. Next for both sexes together comes inability to do the work. Of those who leave from this latter cause most fail in mathematics, next most in English, third in ancient and modern languages, fourth in the natural sciences, and fifth in history, etc. Some depreciate stopping places and would have as few as possible, like the gymnasia, Real school, and lycee, which are continuous from the age of eight or nine for ten years and so grade uninterruptedly from the primary through the university, while others praise the American system on account of the break which they would place at the dawn of puberty when the young crave change. The School Report of St. Louis, in 1901, presents a valuable table and curves of attendance up the grades in three representative cities where the dawn of puberty is marked by the greatest steepness of the curve of leaving, as follows: GRAMMAR GRADES.
HIGH SCHOOLS.
97 93 85 74 59 44 The proportion who enter college seems also declining. Of ,575 male graduates of American high schools in 1900, 8,592 1 Report on High School Statistics, by J. M. Greenwood. Proc. of the N. E.
22 INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 5°7 only were in college preparatory courses. Of the total number of male students 13.44 per cent were in preparatory courses. From 1890 to 1899 the percentage of pupils even in private high schools who were preparing for college fell from 61.37 per cent to 46.52 per cent, or nearly fifteen per cent. In the public high schools the total number preparing for college fell between 1890 and 1900 from 14.44 to 10.82 per cent. The percentage of those who graduated fell from 12.60 to Grammar Grades High School Years II III IV V VI VII VIII I II III IV S v.
V \ ^ N v N.
\ V- \ N^ V A \ \ \ V \ \ \ \ s \ \ \ \ \ V \ \ \ \ H r \ \\ \ \2 \ \ \ \ Vv §NS \3 \ \ \ \ V ^ \ \ \ \ ^ ^i ^^ X X 11.89 Per cent- The total number in public and private high schools preparing for college fell in the same decade from 18.66 to 11.53, or m°re than seven per cent. Accord- ing to the late report of Secretary Hill upon the subject, in the year 1899 there were 13,563 persons who entered the 244 high schools of Massachusetts, of whom only 4,655, or about one-third, entered the last year. How many of this latter number fell out and how many graduated, statistics do not state. In the same report it is stated that, in 1899, 818 508 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE entered college from Massachusetts high schools. In 1901, the secretary says, " I am led to infer that the proportion of high school graduates who do not go to college is gaining slowly upon the proportion that do go," and he adds that while the ratio of girls who enter college from Massachusetts high schools showed an increase for some years, it has now " sub- stantially ceased."
The last decade has witnessed a remarkable new move- ment on the part of colleges to influence high schools, which began with the Report of the Committee of Ten, printed in 1893. We have also had Reports of the Committee of Seven, Nine, Twelve, Fourteen, Fifteen, besides that of the National Education Association in 1890 on entrance requirements which invoked the aid of the American Historical and Philo- logical Associations. In general these influences have worked from above downward, the dominating influence and the initia- tive in most cases coming from colleges or universities. That this movement did good for a time no one can deny. It has made many junctures between secondary and higher educa- tion; greatly increased the interest of faculties in high schools; given the former fruitful pedagogic themes for their own dis- cussions; brought about a more friendly feeling and better mutual acquaintance; given slow colleges a wholesome stimu- lus; made school courses richer, given them better logical sequence; detected many weak points; closed many gaps; defined standards of what education means; brought great advantages from uniformity and cooperation, and no doubt, on the whole, has improved the conditions of college entrance examinations and aided in continuity.
One interesting result is the standardizing of high school knowledge, as hardware and even agricultural products, food- stuffs and machines are standardized by sizes, weight, and other measures — six weeks, twelve chapters, four or six hun- dred pages, forty weeks, eighteen courses, seventy experi- ments, four hours a week, three and four years of preparatory study, with 3,200 periods, fifteen credits, age eighteen, average mark seventy, so many Latin and Greek words to learn a month, so many minutes of recitation, home work, courses, text-books and examination tests all reduced to arithmetical or quantified dimensions. Knowledge is no longer bullion INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 509 from the mine, but is minted with a hall-mark of at least some numerical committee. Everything must count and so much, for herein lies its educational value. There is no more wild, free, vigorous growth of the forest, but everything is in pots or rows like a rococo garden. Intellectual pabulum has lost all gamey flavor and is stall-fed or canned. These bales or blocks of condensed and enriched knowledge, which are used to cali- brate the youthful mind or test its lifting or carrying power, seem to it stale; the stints become monotonous, mechanical, factory work to the pupil, but to the teacher they acquire an excessive value, as if the world of knowledge had been canon- ized and certain things set apart as more sacred than other fields of knowledge. Some institutions allow more options between the blocks and assert greater freedom because they offer more patterns and more sizes of essentially the same material. Such scientific goods as can be metered, inspected, and examined by mass methods, tabulated and schematized, always soon seem shopworn to youth who want somewhere room for individuality, if not for distinction, and resist cur- ricularization and, as the French call it, the canalization of knowledge. The pupil is in the age of spontaneous variation which at no period of life is so great. He does not want a standardized, overpeptonized mental diet. It palls on his appetite. He suffers from mental ennui and dyspepsia, and this is why so many and an increasing number refuse some of the best prepared courses, like the ducks in James Russell Lowell's story, for which a chemist had demonstrated by long study that celery was the most nutritious of all possible foods, but when his farm was well stocked it was found to be about the only thing " the derned things wouldn't touch," and they pined and died when it was injected with a syringe. As we saw above, truancy is often due to a restlessness which, all un- conscious of the cause, is really where the home dietary lacks nutritiousness. To enforce a curriculum without interest sug- gests the dream of a great Leipzig psychologist who predicted that sometime foods could be prepared so like chyme as to be inserted into the veins through a stop-cock, dispensing with the digestive function of the alimentary canal, and thus the