to be glad and euphorious that he is alive. Thus the ground is prepared in the soul for those who desire them for the more anthropomorphic doctrines and arguments of divine love, of which these sentiments are the dim prelusions.
It makes little difference whether we call these formulae of this simple grammar of assent articles of faith, a new kind of theologia prima or first principles of science or philosophy, or mere psycho-pedagogic Anlagen for atoning reason and relig- ion. If they do not satisfy all the demands of all the watch- dogs of Zion, who often demand the whole or nothing, they are very much farther from blank negations and skepticism. They tend to win back a world growing indifferent to it, to re- ligion, and to give poise, peace, and sanity, and restore its lost unity to the soul. They lessen the waste of double bookkeeping for the Diesseits and the Jenseits that sets the body over against the soul, tend to close the yawning chasm between them and to cleanse its marasmic marshes of superstition rank with the unsightly weeds of spiritism, theosophy, faith cures, telepathy, and what Kant thought the appalling explanation of the appari- 548 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE tion and hallucination of visionaries by the speculations of metaphysicians. This takes us at once far beyond the age of Tyndall and Huxley on the one hand, and of religious dog- matists on the other, makes religionists who speak of " sci- ence falsely so called " and scientists who sneer at religion, relicts of a vanished stage of culture, and, above all, heartens youth, whose mental integrity has suffered most.
III. In Chapters X and XII is implied something of the standpoint from which I would have courses in the philosophic field enlarged and more positive teachings given. It is the crown of a purely liberal as distinct from both special and professional study. A living and indigenous philosophy differs with every age and ethnic basis, but without it youth fail to glimpse the larger logic in which all systems move. It unified the Greek and later the Teutonic spirit. It is the best ex- pression of the passion for the ideal. At its largest it is a natural science of man. Our own land has not yet thus sum- mated itself, and till it does so and depends less upon alien systems its pedagogy of academic youth must remain incom- plete. Russia sees the evils of a too radical unsettlement and so forbids modern philosophy in her universities till she can evolve one that expresses her own life and her needs in the same spirit that many of our guild cry, back to Kant, Aquinas, or even Plato, nature, etc., for a new start, pending a better, a larger systematization.
(i) The work needed is an outline of each chief science in its place in a larger system. The general principles, methods, and results served up as in the best popular science by the best masters come first, and not the meager matter and tedious detail or logical first steps so entrenched in the conventional beginnings. Every great expert should feel it his duty to put the best that is in him in a form most interesting and profitable to a cultured lay audience, and such matter should be the staple of this course. From the different sciences it should be ordered in evolutionary sequence into an unitary whole as an up-to-date philosophy of nature. First, perhaps, should come astronomy, now pedagogically almost dead in school and astro-physicized in college, with its great lessons of vast times and space of which the average student has but wretchedly dwarfed and puerile ideas, utterly inadequate to the purposes of modern INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 549 culture, especially in the case of those who grow glibbest in the arguments for their subjectivity. The first principles of force and matter, some account of life and work in the great observa- tories, the difficulties and triumphs of their devotees past and living to date, what is lately done and now doing, the lessons from nebulae, variable stars, the motions of systems, the birth, growth, and death of worlds, and curious speculations, true, and perhaps sometimes those that are false: all these can and perhaps sometime will be easily set forth aright by the astrono- mer himself, and his pedagogic problem now ignored should be recognized as having a special importance and dignity of its own. From the great celestial clockwork to the geologic evolution of the world is the natural next step. If the college geologist brings out the true culture value of his field, as Le Conte could so well do, and if all had taken this course, it could be hastened over, but if he has abdicated the high func- tion of education and lapsed to petrographic or paleontological specializations, the philosophic propsedeutist should find here, too, a new duty to do his best for edification. The same is true in meteorology, physical geography, and of studies of the sea. Physics and even chemistry often need this supplemental office in college. Not only is the culture value of these topics often failed of by experts, but many graduates who do not take them are doomed to go through life in dense and utter- ignorance of what these great sciences mean in the world. Thus for nearly twenty years I have given lectures entitled the pedagogy of each of these sciences, which consist largely of compendious statements from diligent and non-expert reading of text-books and semi-popular literature, and have made of this course, despised by some of my expert colleagues in their fields, matter which I must believe, from the testimony of my students, has helped to fill chasms of ignorance and open new fields of interest, and that has made their thought both more sure-footed and wider in range. It is a rescue work alike from the premature distortions of specialization and wretched home- opathy of hyper-elementarizing methods. My lectures on ether, atoms, nebulae, the sun, moon, extinct plants, animals, with biographic and historic matter, on a few geological types, the sea, air, etc., are, from the standpoint of science, cheap and wretched compilations which some of my pupils would affect 55° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE to despise from a layman, and such as would cause most to think me very superficial, if I did not either assume that they had the knowledge and only pretended to tell them how to teach it and to suggest its pedagogic value, or else introduced it in the attempt to broaden the history of philosophy, so as to include that of science. Some who take this work disparage all, as perhaps all do some parts of it, but my sense of service and my conscience and my conviction that it has a great and in- evitable future survives despite all this. Should it ever merit the more academic title of cosmology or the philosophy of nature, or if I admitted the fact that my work in its present form really belongs in the last year of the normal or high school, and that I am really trying to help make up arrears that date here, all would perhaps be better.
When we come to life the pathway is smoother and broader. What is botany — commercial, agricultural, physio- logical, experimental rather than merely structural — doing; its general problems and results and culture values? These are problems of which every college youth should know something, if he takes no special courses; and biology is still more im- portant, conditioning, as it does, all views of life, health, repro- duction and disease. In the latter the choice that must be made between blank nescience and elaborate technic is pathetic. Sometimes both alike end in almost equal ignorance of what the great ideas of Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, and Weismann and their followers are and really stand for and are inspired by, and the incalculable culture-value of their writings is unfelt, while anthropology, in which evolution culminates, is almost unknown in college courses. Even if the development theory were false, its economic value in enabling the mind to grasp vast masses of vital facts into a unity as the simplest way of thinking the universe, demands that it should be taught with intensity and devotion. Cowardice, stupidity, and laziness are the only true causes of our colossal failure to rise to this new opportunity. The waste ineffable is most pathetic when we realize that here is a new basis of teaching practical morality, the highest aim of all education, and that springs of enthu- siasm, of ethical impulsions, and of deep religious sentiments are lost. Animals, children, savages, laboratory psychology, defectives, psychic devolution in degeneration, and disease INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 55 l mental and moral can be understood only in their develop- mental perspective, and they, too, should be more fully sur- veyed, but on this background.
(2) On the side of the history of philosophic thought, once deemed a system in itself, and which some modern extremists on the other hand would abolish, great stress should be laid, but the topical rather than the chronological method should be observed, and, of course, each great man, system, and standpoint should be taught sympathetically. The story of man's efforts to comprehend the world under categories in- tuitive or innate or a priori ideas is perhaps the greatest ro- mance of the human spirit. These first entered philosophy as simple efforts at definition under the obstetric art of Socrates. In Plato they were more developed and hypostatized in his doctrine of ideal forms. In another way they appear in Aris- totle's categories, 'half deduced and half based on an ob- jective study of what people talked of in the market. Kant assumed a table of them without criticism and with too little change. The universals, exemplary forms and species of the schoolmen, Hegel's diamond network or ganglionic thought centers, which made the universe real because it made it ra- tional, and even the natura ipsissima of God himself to know which was conscious immortality: all these are only different stages in the history of these unique products. They are no less historically represented in the theory of fixed types in na- ture which have constituted the chief obstacle evolution has to encounter in every field and form. This assumption of fixed substantial norms, precious partly because products of such severe travail of soul, by some conceived as immanent, and by some transcendent, here in the field of nature, there of mind, partly inherited from the Greeks, yet instinctive in every soul, is the key of much of the thought and many of the great controversies of the world, and properly treated is of the highest educational value.
These ultimate fundamental concepts, or primeval posit- ings of the soul, are great words, the history of which has value unsurpassed in all the discipline of higher culture. Matter is one, the history of its conception from the non-being of Greek idealism all the wray to modern materialism, as told by Lange, now the only reality, here passive and inert, there 55* THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE purely dynamic, a Democritic chaotic rain, now a few score elements, the combination of which follows laws strangely analogous to those of the solar system, by some even Christian orthodoxies, from Tertullian down, constituting the essence of souls, and by others the extreme polar opposite of everything psychic, a shibboleth not only of philosophic creed but of vir- tue or bestiality, illustrate the persistent and all-pervasive power of an abstract idea. Another group of radicals, no less mighty, are the concepts of energy and its many deriva- tions, including force and motion, attraction and repulsion, etc. Substance with its specifications, the thing-in-itself, monads, reals, and the ontological group constitute another. Cause in all its forms, material, final, personal, is another standpoint. In biology are life, hunger, love, and even hered- ity, sex, cell-development, and manifold other apperceptive centers. In the psychological field are pleasure, pain, will, feeling, instinct, conscience, duty, good, reason, the ego, Gemtith, progress, law, truth, beauty, consciousness and unconsciousness, faith, friendship, monism and pluralism, quality and quantity, inherence, freedom, etc. To know and realize what these soul-compelling concepts have been and done in the world is the highest philosophic culture, and to see them all completed and coordinated into an organic unity now seems sure to be something like the final stage of philosophic evolution, a science of human experience. Thought and dis- cussion free language from its bondage, to serve disexiled above and make it an instrument of the intellect. Some kind of metaphysics is essential for both mental and moral health, and without it thinking tends to be superficial.
There are, of course, ultra-categorical minds and books in which philosophizing consists only in adopting one or more root ideas, and pigeonholing in them all the facts of life and mind that fall within a narrow ken. Such men, if they teach, do so as if they were initiating hierophants into esoteric mys- teries and jealously guarding metaphysical orthodoxies, and all with an air of repressed omniscience, easily explainable by the fact that they live on a plateau of higher certainty, that is so narrow that they can rarely lose sight of its precipitate edges. Easily made changes in the order, prominence, or, if worst comes to worst, the number of these norms, meet any INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 553 exigency of controversy, for few as they are and many as are the books, the combinations are by no means exhausted or the vast intellectual spaces, that can be triangulated by these definitions, yet all explored. Whether decomposable by fur- ther psychic analysis or not, whether they mark the point where knowledge starts or stops, knowledge and experience can no more become objects of science without them than can physical nature without the concept of forces and laws; but no definitions of them can possibly be so exact as to sustain long trains of arguments unswervingly, and whenever we study their fit or consistency, rather than their validity, we interfere with their formulation, which should be steadily progressive, and which the history of philosophy shows has been generally, though not always, arrested whenever they have been knit up into concatenated systems.
Not all should be subjected to this discipline, but those who are should have felt sympathy for, if not have been for a time by turns, materialists, spiritualists, positivists, dogmatists, optimists, pessimists, necessitarians, freedomists, realists and idealists, Hellenists and Hebrewists, dualists and monists, hedonists, intuitionalists, empiricists, dynamists, Platonists, pantheists, Spinozists, associationists, and all the rest; should have realized how the world looks from each of these stand- points, and have felt their partial truth far more than their lim- itations. Every soul contains the germ of all these, as we saw in Chapter XIV it does those of all religions and sects, and needs something from them all. Here breadth, toleration, hos- pitality of mind, and not early discipleship to one system and indoctrination with the arguments of one against all others, should be sought. Circumnutation should again be the watch- word. The lesson of history here, that all are right in most that they affirm and wrong in most that they deny, should be heeded, or else narrowness, bigotry, and stupration, and not enlargement of soul, result. The real tragedies of this field are not so much the loss of old beliefs as premature partizan- ship. The history of philosophy presents an anthology of types of mind and standpoints, to be all known and felt, so that the individual sees his bearings in the macrobiotic world of thought. Thus insemination, not incrustation, is the goal, and the young man who feels an inner call to enlist in the war 554 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE of one view against the rest is precocious, for of all fields con- scious maturity comes last in this, and slow unconscious cere- bration, experience in life, and the gradual development of mental character are the basis of every true and natural sys- tem of philosophy, which is the completest of all the expres- sions of matured personality, and to evolve a philosophy that utters it is the supreme charm and dignity of old age.
Picard, in the Grande Salle des Fetes, in the Hotel de Ville of Paris, well represents true philosophy or wisdom- love, not as a conventional hoary sage, burdened with solutions, but as a youth carrying a glowing torch of science into a dark cave, while 'all the enemies of culture clutch at his feet, seek to snatch and hurl back his torch; sirens allure to idleness, but he presses on, resolute to defy every danger and overcome every difficulty, feeling that before and in him lies the hope of the world and determined that it shall not fail. This is cor- rect. Youth is the pioneer, often the discoverer, capable of passionate love of truth, turns naturally to expert mastery as the best way of forging out a new and recognized place for himself in the intellectual world near the frontier which it is his very nature to love. But the great systematizers in both the fields of nature and mind whom all specialists great and small expect and serve, in whom all the promises in the world of thought await their fulfilment, will be ideal senescents in the earliest stages of involution which complements the culmina- tion of adolescence. Each is incomplete without the other, and proper cooperation of the best type of each at their best age is the essential problem of the true university.
H. The University. — Science, in the largest sense of that term that includes the humanities, is the greatest achievement of the race thus far. It includes the important facts that are certain and exact, the verified laws, and all that has the highest culture power for the feelings and will as well as for the intellect. It makes the best-welded cohesions and the most compactly woven cerebral tissue. Of this, universities, "the noblest term in the vocabulary of our age," in what abroad are called their philosophical, as distinct from all pro- fessional faculties, are the peculiar organs. To them are com- mitted the highest interests of man. They became and re- mained the asylums of free thought and conviction when INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 555 Rome and al' privileged orders declined, and their germs were brought and piously and early planted here by our fathers. They are the best nurseries of talent, where is kept alive the holy fervor of investigation, that in the passion for truth is fearless of consequences, and that has never been more truly and loftily ideal than now, when some of the objects of study are crassly material. It is their quality that chiefly determines the status of the technological and of all the so-called learned professions. It depends largely upon them whether a land is cursed with medical quacks, pettifogging lawyers and politi- cians, a superstitious and bigoted clergy, incompetent engineers and architects, or whether these professions fulfil their noble ideals. More and more the trained expert who has attained the mastery that comes by specialized concentration speaks the de- ciding word in every critical stage and in all departments of life. Experience here* reiterates and enforces the conclusion of the largest of all the English Parliamentary Reports, that of all the great popular charities university education has proven safest, wisest, and best, and that for two chief reasons: first, because the superior integrity and ability of the guardians who consent to administer such funds, the intelligence and grate- ful appreciation of those aided by them, and the general inter- est and resulting publicity, all three combine to hold them through the ages truest to the purpose and spirit of the founder; and, secondly, because by improvement here, all other good causes are most efficiently aided.
Of all the many ways of advancing this highest grade of education personal aid to select students is one of the most ap- proved. The University of Leipzig has over four hundred distinct funds for this purpose, the oldest, still carefully guarded, dating from 1325. Oxford and Cambridge provide for some eighteen hundred fellows and scholars and other stipendiaries. Since the first endowment of learning in the Athenian porch and grove, thousands of such donations have been tangible witnesses to the sentiment that in all the world there is no object so worthy of service as eugenic, gifted youth, for in them is the hope of the world, and to bring them to ever fuller maturity is the surest guarantee of progress. For such, the idea was early developed that nothing was too good, and so they have also enjoyed many exceptions from 556 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE taxation, military service, criminal law for minor offenses, and also special privileges of theaters, travel, etc. To aid such young men into the established learned callings is a very differ- ent thing from developing non-professional specialists and in- tending professors, and on just these our academic system has till lately been unprecedentedly hard. Mostly from the middle classes, their means were usually exhausted before the severest stage of apprenticeship, needful for those who would extend the boundaries of knowledge by research and devote their lives to the pure service of truth, was passed. Many of the choicest of these spirits have worn out their bodies prematurely by privation and their minds by worry and the drudgery of tutor- ing, never so lifeless and mechanical as under our college sys- tem. They have never even enjoyed the rights of docentship, which permits competition for the suffrages of students' favor with the established professors, which is such a wholesome stimulus to both. Therefore, when the Johns Hopkins Uni- versity focused attention on just this choicest but most neg- lected class of adolescents in the last stages of this develop- ment, it marked an epoch, and not only added a new and higher story to our educational system, but gave to them at a period of life so precious, but so easily repressed or perverted, the possibility of a fuller intellectual maturity. This was the beginning of true university life in this country. Laboratories and seminaries are the workshops of the Holy Ghost for youth, and this influence was felt and these methods copied through- out the whole field of higher education, and will always mark this spot and these early years as the brightest in the history of the academic development of this country. Here the vocation of the scholar found the leisure and seclusion amidst largest opportunities, which it needs, and if the supremest pleasure in life is, as Fichte said, to see the best youth unfold the highest powers and grow by increments that can be seen each month and almost every week, as it always does if given a fit environ- ment, this bliss was here experienced.
But the young investigator, even in the best environment too, no matter how great his talent, is often, in the widening field of knowledge, as helpless as a new-born babe, and needs at first daily guidance and help to prevent waste of effort and discouragement. To do this involves a higher pedagogy, un- INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 557