1 Neuhauss: Die Hawaii-Inseln. Virchow und von Holtzendorff, Sammlung Wiss. Vortrage, Berlin, 1886. See also Hawaiian America, by Caspar Whitney. New York, 1899; The Real Hawaii, by Lucien Young, 1899; A Brief (School) History of the Hawaiian Republic, by W. D. Alexander.
2 The Native Hawaiians of Yesterday and To-day. Read at the Mohawk Con- ference. October, 1901.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 661 L. F. Alvarez, M. D.,1 reports a circular of the Board of Health to physicians all over the Sandwich Islands, asking their view of the cause of the decrease of the natives. They placed first the kahuna. By this system occult sorcerers, as it is believed, can pray to death any one they choose, their prayers being secretly supplemented some- times by poison. It is a kind of crude faith-cure by which nostrums are often given to a sick man's relatives. Although the law forbids the practise of medicine without a license, the trial by jury of natives makes conviction impossible. No law against this can be enforced. The modern kahuna differs from the old in that he takes the medicine himself, which is chiefly the intoxicating awa. Although they also give it freely to patients with whom it is often fatal, especially with children and old people, who are not accustomed to its alcoholic poison, they teach their countrymen that Hawaiians are subject to Hawaiian diseases and can not be cured by foreign remedies. The next most common form of extinction of the natives is syphilis, which is aggra- vated because few apply to the physicians, and their methods of eating poi with their fingers out of the same calabash, sleeping on the same mat, passing the family pipe from mouth to mouth, etc., keep up the contagion. In all the Hawaiian Islands in 1841, smallpox carried off 100,000 inhabitants, and this disease has broken out on the average every five years since. In 1898 nearly one-fourth of the population, or eighty per cent of all affected, died of measles. Here, too, about seven per cent of the school children were found leprous, and the forced removals to Molokai, from which there is no return and which is almost certain death in from three to fifteen years, often separate husband and wife, parents and children. Compulsory clothing in place of the more or less adamitic costumes has been as deleterious to the Hawaiians as it would be to compel Europeans to adopt native costumes. The islanders regard dress as ornament, to be paraded by day and laid aside at night, and colds and influenzas galore result.
Infanticide, one of the inveterate customs of Hawaii, arose, as with many other Polynesians, because the limited territory forced this, or else famine or inter-tribal warfare, to keep down the popula- tion. The missionaries estimated that when they came nearly two- thirds of the children were put to death either before or after birth. A change from natural to artificial conditions reduces reproductive power, and so it came that those races that wrere first civilized soonest became childless. To these causes of decline are added licentiousness and its resultant diseases. Malo,2 the native historian, stated that " all the people of the island are miserably diseased. Foreigners have lent their whole influence to make the Hawaiian Islands one great brothel." " This statement," adds Elkin, " is borne out by the facts." 3 1 The Hawaiians: Why they are Dying Out. Pacific Medical Journal, July, 1893. J Hawaiian Spectator, 1839.
5 An Inquiry into the Causes of the Decrease of the Hawaiian People. Am. Jour, of Sociology, November, 1902.
662 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE " The civilization which the missionaries thrust upon the Hawaiians was the mongrel offspring of a fossil theology and a laissez-faire economics. The missionaries taught them by precept how to lay up treasure in heaven, and the missionaries' children taught them by ex- ample how to lay up earthly treasure," although the field left them for the latter operation was very limited. The recent slight check in the decline of population is likely to be temporary. Blackman,1 a sin- gularly competent writer, describes modern Hawaii as a struggle for survival between three irreconcilable elements: the aboriginal cult, Christianity and civilized skepticism, and greed and vice. The full- blooded Hawaiians in 1896 owned but 0.06 of the soil of the islands, having in three generations been dispossessed by foreigners. Nearly eighty-two per cent of the children between six and fourteen are now compelled to go to school. Yet after fifteen years of teaching there, C. M. Hyde says he had met but one native who merited the name of student. Our abstract and implacable system assumed that the edu- cation best fitted for man was best for the Kanaka in his taro-patch. Each of the many incoming races, males always greatly exceeding females in number, has contributed its own peculiar vices. Three periods in the last century promised prosperity and ended in lasting injury. " The sandal wood trade slew its thousands, the whaling industry its ten thousands, and the sugar industry now threatens to exterminate the remnant. As if to hasten the process, the Govern- ment, now territorial and thus appointive, is persistently carrying out a wholesale policy of liquor licenses. Inaugurated in the later days of the so-called republic, the number of these has increased almost sevenfold during the last six years — as if to administer an opiate to the victim before the sacrifice." Thus here, too, civilization " eats up the savage." The other Sawaiori races will not long outlast them, as the parent race from which they all spring is long extinct.
III. The Philippines, with one thousand islands, perhaps two thousand tribes, many tongues, great heat, nearly five per cent of its 8,000,000 inhabitants illiterate, yet many of them better started on the path of education and religion by the Spanish — who have raised them far above the level of most eastern islanders — than we are prone to admit, presents a difficult problem to a nation with no colonial experience and inclined to believe that in the records of other nations there is little to learn. From our experience with Indians our soldier has learned severity, and from contact with the negro we have learned contempt for dark skins, and this is a bad preparation for dealing with the very intricate problem in 1 The Making of Hawaii. New York, 1899. See pp. 75-240.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 663 these islands. Perhaps we should have cooperated with Aguinaldo or formed a protectorate, and were wrong in in- sisting on absolute surrender before any and everything else, but the time for this is irrevocably past.
Professor F. Rinne, of Hanover,1 compares the diversities of the Philippine races to those of the different German states a century ago, and suggests that the problem of unity must be worked out slowly from within in these islands, as it was by the Teutons. He thinks that the pride and love of freedom of the Tagalogs will make har- monious relations between victors and vanquished forever improbable, especially in view of the hauteur of the Americans, who regard even the cultured natives as niggers, but this comparison suggests nothing practical. Englishmen point us to Sir Andrew Clark's work in estab- lishing the federated Malay states, but this is practicable only where there are recognized rulers, be they Khedives, Sultans, Datos, or Rajahs; but in the Philippines the masses have no hereditary chiefs such as invited Create Britain to intervene in the Malay states. Each of the latter are veiled crowned colonies, the British really forcing their advice upon each ruler. Blumentritt2 urges that it is against the very nature of the Anglo-Saxons to give up power once committed to them. He states that there is less illiteracy among the Filipinos than in the Balkan Peninsula, in Russia as a whole, in many provinces of Spain and Portugal, or than in the Latin republics of South America, and that the Filipinos have shown a better prima facie right to form an independent state than many a European and American state has shown.
D. C. Worcester declares that " one might imagine that morality would be at a low ebb among a people whose women are almost with- out modesty, and where all alike agree that there is no future life nor any sure retribution for evil deeds in this. Nothing could be further from the truth. Such a thing as a faithless wife is almost unknown. Again and again we left, wholly unprotected, enough prop- erty to make a dozen of them very wealthy according to their stand- ards, yet they never stole a penny's worth from us. On the whole, after making somewhat extensive observations among the Philippine natives, I am inclined to formulate the law that their morals improve as the square of the distance from churches and other so-caleld ' civ- ilizing influences.' " But these statements, while they may be to some extent true of the Tagalogs, or possibly the Visayas and Slo- canos, can hardly apply to the Negritos or to the wild, lewd, barbarous and cannibal tribes of the interior and the smaller islands.
1 Zwischen Philippines und Amerikanern auf Luzon. Hanover, 1901, p. 46 ft seq.
1 Die Filipinos. Hamburg, 1900.
8 The Philippine Islands and their People, New York, 1898, p. 413.
664 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE Schurman, who presided over the admirable work of the first Philippine Commission, insisted that " any decent kind of a govern- ment of Philippines by Philippines is better than the best possible government by Americans." Those who debate whether the natives can ever be loyally American at heart, who limit their studies of them to the degree of pacification, the intensity of animosity caused by war, the percentage of illiteracy, their capacity to work, or their courage and disciplinability as soldiers, important as these questions are, realize neither the full complexity of the problem before us, or see its true and only method of solution, or feel the urgency of our present duty.
Under Spain there were 1,914 teachers, and in theory, but not in practise, education was compulsory from ten to twelve. There were six secondary private colleges, sixty-nine private Latin schools for boys and a few for girls. There were two Spanish normal schools in Manila, which were free, and paid each pupil ten dollars a month. In 1888 education cost 124,963 Mexican dollars, and the agricultural schools alone spent 113,686 more. There were two colleges estab- lished in 1601 and 1610 respectively, one for theology and jurispru- dence and the other for pharmacy, intended primarily for Spanish youth, but to which natives were admitted. Besides these there were eight agricultural stations, a nautical school for pilots, very important here, and with a three-year course, a school of painting and sculpture, and a military academy.
Blumentritt's twenty years' study of the Filipinos convinces him that as soldiers they are courageous, economical, and entirely ame- nable to strict discipline, with a perseverance that disaster can not overwhelm. This was General Gordon's opinion of them when they fought under him in the Taping rebellion. Under the Spaniards they were for fifteen years accustomed to a system akin to the Austrian, which gave them an army of from 12,000 to 18,000 men in peace, with at least 100,000 in war. This £rmy, whose services the Ameri- cans could have had as compensation for the naval protection of a young republic, would have cost far less than the extravagant Ameri- can volunteers and been more mobile.
The logic of the situation is plain and unequivocal. We should express our national independence of Old- World tradition by develop- ing a new colonial policy based not upon precedent, although learning all its lessons. We should, like the framers of our Constitution and Declaration of Independence, go back to first principles and steer by stars and not by coast-marks. Assuming that those islands are to be developed for the interests of their inhabitants, renouncing the policy of making them pay the hundreds of millions which the war cost, and of voting away their property and franchises, as the Taft Com- mission proposed, without their consent and hearty cooperation, not disposing of their most important business before they are admitted to participate or taken into active partnership, for even " to give them good government from above without evoking their own active co- ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 665 operation, as England has done for the people of India, is to sap and atrophy their own capacity for self-government," we should first of all study the native customs, traditions, sentiments, and ideas, and utilize everything possible, fulfil and not destroy, as becomes a race professing Christianity. We should not only have a blue-book con- taining the opinions of Spanish and American soldiers, pastors, priests, and teachers, and exhaust all sources of testimony according to the best English precedent, but the Government should utilize its able corps of anthropologists in expeditions to report on tribal organiza- tions, native industries, marriage customs, all cults, religious ideas and practises, and diseases. We should study the situation, political writings and parties of the twenty-five years preceding 1896, and be sure that we know and sympathize with everything good or vital enough to graft into the native life. If war has made this hard, and if we admit that this is even in part our fault, we should feel all the more morally constrained and zealous in this work to undo past mis- takes and close the chasm. All native helpers and suggestions should be preferred so far as possible to those of alien and especially ab- sentee origin. They should be immune from the arbitrary power of Congress, which the best of them so dread. Schurman well says, our first obligation is " to understand the character and circumstances of the people, realizing sympathetically their aspirations and ideals. A government to stand must be firmly rooted in the needs, interests, judgment, and devotion of the people." " There is no instance in history of a successful government of a colony where profit to the parent state or the citizens has been a leading consideration." While we remain, it must be for the good of the inhabitants. We must re- member that their aspirations are legitimate and that " struggling nationalities are the jewels of history, the hope and promise of the world/' The humanitarian motive, which prompted our first inter- vention, should be not only conserved but put to work. The conceit that we can do anything because we have money and that we are shrewd when we have only been lucky, the mouthings of platform demagogues, the interests of political platforms and elections, whoop- ing up the flag, our first experience with real natural interests and responsibilities on the other side of the globe that to our myopic minds is so far away that it seems, as James well says, only a painted pic- ture, the bigotry that censured Schurman, who saw the Sultan of Sulu and saved the great southern islands from revolt, because he did not then and there insist on the emancipation of slaves, which would have provoked a terrible Mohammedan war — these are not auspicious.
But genetic psychology, which is at root only common sense at the same time simplified, magnified, and reenforced by examples here as everywhere, has only the plain precept, study and adapt, to develop the best that is indigenous, be patient, adopting a long-ranged policy that does not forget that a century with a race is no more than a year with an individual. In education we should not, as do existing 81 666 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE programs, so carefully score away the Spanish language, but develop all that can be done with it; nor should we force out the native tongue and teach only English in the lower grades. We should do our utmost to develop the best indigenous languages, help gather traditions and myths, as Virchow, P. T. Harvey, G. S. Kayme, and others have begun to do; reject at first no native custom not phys- ically immoral or unhygienic, emphasize every native industry and teach better methods and technic, and strive to develop good Fili- pinos who will make the most and best of life in that environment. We should teach them respect for their own heroes and patriots as well as for Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, and incubate not only self-respect but pride rather than shame of their own race; employ native teachers, and emulate the ideals and practises of Leitner in the Punjab, later described. Every argument for child study at home as the basis of educational methods and matter is greatly reenforced for children and adults of an alien race.
IV. There are three Africas, says Drummond, the north where men go for health, the south for money, and the center for adventure. The first is that of Augustine, Carthage, and the Pharoahs; the second that of the Zulus and diamonds; and the third that of Livingstone and Stanley, which is half as large again as all North America, with some 12,000,000 square miles and a population estimated at from 140,000,000 to 160,000,000, although nearly one-third are Semites or Arabs. It has perhaps thirteen persons per square mile. North America has eleven, Asia forty-nine, Europe ninety- six. The Sahara almost equals the United States including Alaska. Quite as characteristic as the Hamites of the north are the great Bantu race occupying most of the south and middle, especially the highlands. Ratzel, Reclus, and nearly all authorities call them ascendent races.
They are naturally domestic, quiet, vegetarian, but not guiltless of cannibalism, polygamy, fetishism, and belief in witchcraft. Never- theless they are, according to Dr. Tyler, " in mental as well as phys- ical ability in no respect inferior to the whites. They are as capable of a high degree of culture as any people on the face of the globe. They are not only emotional but logical, and have retentive memories, and can split hairs equal to any Yankee lawyer." Poultney Bigelow said: "The Zulus are by nature ladies and gentlemen; that is to say, they are better mannered, speak more gently, are more graceful in their movements, and are altogether better company than any room- ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 667 ful of my own people that it has ever been my good fortune to meet."
According to Theal,1 the black man is generally large, erect, with wondrous symmetry, strong, with reasoning powers in defending him- self in a controversy quite equal to those of the white. He is dom- ineering and vain. Most tribes have a chief, although his power is little felt beyond his own village in times of peace. The people are the property of the rulers, so that any violence against their persons is atoned for by a fine to the chief. The Bantu religion rests on the belief in spirits and ancestors and chiefs that can interfere with mundane affairs. The greatest of these controls the lightning. When the ghosts are hungry they send plague or calamity till sacrifices ap- pease their appetite. It is impious to mourn for one who dies by lightning, for he is specially sent for. Nearer than spirits, the dead chiefs, or ancestors is a host of goblins, water sprites, and malevolent demons that meet the Bantu everywhere. There is no fairyland, but all are ministers of evil. Belief in witchcraft is universal. Occasion- ally one believes and makes others believe that he has a revelation from the spirit-world. Many of the tribes circumcise at fifteen or sixteen. ' The youth then leaves the society of women and is admitted to manhood. For two months they have license to steal if unde- tected, then are lectured and become men, with presents to give them a start, and free rein is then given to immorality. The folk-lore fills many volumes, but it is neither moral nor useful. Animals play a large role in it. Cattle are their chief wealth. They weave baskets and manipulate metals.
They have had great leaders — Tshaka, Dingyswago, and, perhaps ablest of all, Moshesh, born in 1793, a man of uncommon presence, who welded many tribes, was cruel in war but mild and judicious in government. Theal says, the Bantus " increase by natural means without parallel elsewhere." Their states of mind are but little ex- plored, they do not realize the power of the whites, submit only by fear and are restless under restraint, so that the dread of a great native uprising is not idle. According to J. A. Hobson,' in one section of the Christian Church in the Transvaal a resolution was lately passed excommunicating all who should evangelize the heathen, and in the constitution of the Transvaal all equality in church or state was for- bidden. The colored people could not enter a Dutch church or even walk on the sidewalk, trade, or own any land in a country that two generations ago was all their own. The Boers almost enslave many of them and regard them almost as animals to be used for their benefit. To this section the British never go, but regard them as a low human type, and allow them to buy liquor, which the Dutch forbade. " We must compare the old tyranny of the Boer farmer with the new tyr- 1 History of South Africa, 4 vols. See vol. ii, p. 134 et seq.
'The War in South Africa: Its Causes and Effects. New York, 1900.
668 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE army of the mining capitalist." The cheap black miners are still huddled in compounds and exposed to vice, but their masters are growing anxious about temperance, for liquor impairs their efficiency. According to a late Blue Book,1 lung disease, rheumatism, and syphilis are increasing, and education and church building go with " deplorable demoralization on the part of young men." Even rudimentary school- ing is thought dangerous, and the wish of the natives to manage their own churches is beginning to be thought almost rebellious. Mr. Rhodes ridiculed " the peculiar class of human being, the Kaffir par- son." " The entire system of South African society stands on the various modes of coercing natives to work for the whites," placing them where they can not refuse wage work. Those who believe in the educability and future of the natives are thought faddists, not yet dangerous because so few. " Indeed, manual labor has already be- come a badge of shame for the whites, degrading them to the level of the blacks." Hobson presents an array of facts to show that the South African press, theaters, mining, liquor, and all other interests are largely in the hands of the Jewish race, who have mostly refrained from direct participation in politics, but will soon add this to their other lines of business. " The one important object is to secure a full, cheap, regular and submissive supply of Kaffir and white labor." Premiums are paid to Kaffir chiefs if there has been a shortage of labor. Captive Bechuanas are indentured by force if charged, though not convicted, of rebellion. One writer considers it humanity that they are not killed, but made to do three months of honest work in the year."
Belgium, which subsidized Stanley's exploration and which is now supreme in the Congo Basin, with a population of from 8,000,000 to 27,000,000, has, in violation of treaty, made this region a huge net- work of monopolies.3 The great interest is rubber, and to this almost everything else seems sacrificed. If a tribe refuses to furnish its quota, it is said to be in rebellion and punitive expeditions are organized which lay waste the villages, burn huts, and slaughter men, women, and chil- dren. We are told that not only does the state itself engage in cap- turing slaves, but it encourages and officially protects the traffic. " On the Lualaba I have seen hundreds of large canoes coming down from * See, too, the publications of the Aborigines Protection Society, organized in 1837, especially his accounts of the past treatment and present condition of South and West African natives under European influence, by the secretary of the society, II. R. Fox Bourne. Almost every traveler there since Sir Richard Burton tells the same story. Compare also Clive Day, The Dutch in Java, New York, 1904, 3 The Curse of Central Africa, by Captain Guy Burrows. With which is incor- porated A Campaign Amongst Cannibals, by Edgar Canisius. R. A. Everett & ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT Nyangwe and Kassongo laden with slaves packed together like sheep. The Arab or his niampara in charge of the convoy was armed with an official passport signed by the commissaire de district, and bearing his official seal. These passports generally set forth that the bearer was authorized to ' recruit ' labor, and all agents of the state were required to aid him. Of course, as there is no voluntary labor in the country, the Arab purchases his cattle in the cheapest market. The universal principal is * that of placing the burden of everything upon the natives.' The latter are cannibals, with a very strong craving for animal food, which, as they have no domestic animals except dogs, they can not get except in time of war." Details of many cannibal feasts are described. " The greatest delight of these negroes is to be in a position to domineer over their fellow blacks of another tribe." They seem to have an exquisite pleasure in witnessing human suffer- ing. It has been " fortunate for the white man that the negro invari- ably detests his neighbor of another tribe with a deep and lasting hatred, prompting him to take part in any scheme likely to give him power over his brother black. It has been solely by playing tribe against tribe that the whites have been able to maintain a footing in Africa. The day is perhaps coming when the aborigine will see the folly of this; and should he ever do so the reign of the European is over, so far at least as tropical Africa is concerned. I am convinced that that day is not so distant as some enthusiastic colonizers affect to believe." We are told that the quality of men sent by King Leo- pold, who has the greatest personal interest in the profits accruing from this colony, is far inferior to those sent by England, that they often become discontented and irritable, and, having little moral courage, often give way to nostalgia. In one conflict, in which 114 were killed, " seven tons and more of human meat were cut up into roasts, steaks, chops, and cutlets." In one expedition of native soldiers, led by a few white men, the record is, " We had undergone six weeks of painful marching and had killed over nine hundred natives — men, women, and children. But the enemy and disease had destroyed half of our own