and wonderful patriotism, without feeling that the conquest of Mexico was a deplorable calamity; that if that ancient civilization had been saved, it might have been Christianized and purified without being destroyed, and to-day have stood one of the wonders and delights of the world. Its civilization was self-grown, it was indigenous, it was unique; a few poor remnants of its piety, love of order, and self- government still remain in remote Indian townships, but its learning, magnificence, and glory have gone forever." Now they carry stones for miles to finish a Catholic church as they once did to build cairns. They love flowers, and decorate altars, temples, and schools as of old they did their prayer-houses, and worship saints and idols as of old they did their ancestral idols.
In all these regions, as well as in Canada, where 40,000 are Cath- olics, and South America, the Catholic cult has permeated the life of the people vastly more than the Protestant, the latter having but the slightest hold in South America. Warneck says that native In- dians are " more accessible to Christianity than any other people." All " betray that gloomy and incurable sadness that seems to hang over natives destine'd to perish." Some of the prominent men in Central America, like President Juarez and General Moreles, are pure Indians. There is little prejudice, and if educated they intermarry freely with the best Spanish families. The University of Mexico was founded in 1553, eighty-three years before Harvard, and in 1824 Humboldt said no country of the new continent, not excepting the United States, presents scientific establishments so great and solid as those of the capital of Mexico. Often " paganism was baptized and Christianity was paganized." In Central America, the size of Spain, " an epitome of all other countries and climates of the globe," an old god is paralleled to each Christian personage. The sun is Cod the Father, the moon the Madonna, the stars tutelary saints. Many natives think there are two gods, one of the forest especially devoted to them, and the other for the whites. In Guatemala, in 1899, the Goddess of Wisdom was venerated in an anti-Roman festival as an " apotheosis of free thought, the one possible factor in our national culture." In Argentina, nearly fifteen times as large as New England, with its superb climate, its silver mines, that of Potosi alone having yielded 15,000 million dollars since the Spanish came, where Reclus thinks men are found containing a great number of characteristics of all races, a center of so amazing a development that some think that the Spanish tongue will one day rival English as a world language (one estimate being that in 1920 it will be spoken by 180,000,000), there is the greatest desire to emulate North American and European ideals. In general, South America shows extreme religiosity. A great mine is named Jesus Crucified. Streets are named Christ, Rosary, Cross. Men and women are named Jesus, Conception, Mary. A popular play is entitled the Face of God. Cathedrals in every stage of decay, and feasts, fasts, and saint-days abound, the latter being so numerous as to greatly interfere with 688 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE business, a coffee raiser -having abandoned his enterprise because he could only count on two hundred days of work a year. Catholicism is generally the state religion, with only modified freedom allowed to other forms of worship, and a small number of incomers quite alienated from, and perhaps hostile to, all religion.
Averaging the sixteen best estimates, our own Indians number 315,000, although the Indian Bureau in 1900 reports only 270,544. Each family of five, if they owned and divided the States exclusive of Alaska, would have a manor of forty- eight square miles, or 30,720 acres. Rhode Island, e. g., would be divided among twenty-six Indians, while it now has 69,101 families. Cyrus Thomas says, " The fact that the country was inhabited by and in possession of a native population does not appear to have been taken into consideration in the solution of this problem." The low culture status of the aborigines afforded an excuse for Europeans to claim ownership, assum- ing that they made ample compensation by bestowing the benefits of civilization and Christianity. The history of treaties, cessions, legislative and supreme court decisions on this subject is long and abounds in fluctuations and incon- sistencies. As these claims are tribal rather than individual, they were till 1871 treated by a legal fiction as sovereign states. France alone never attempted any settled policy of extinguishing Indian claims.
The Indian title to all the public domain is now obliterated save in 162 Indian reservations and those acquired by the Indians through purchase. Of these, 51 were established by treaty or agreement, 56 by executive order, 28 by act of Congress, and the others in various ways.1 Parkham says that " Spanish civilization crushed the Indian; English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization embraced and cherished him." A nomad or agricultural race is never allowed long to monopolize a land that could support a denser population. The half million Indians in North America when the white man came were immensely impressed by his mysterious ships, more wonderful arms, and perhaps most of all by the horses, then unknown in the New World. The red men little realized, when they 1 Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. i8g6-'97, part ii. Full and minute maps of all these reservations, together with a complete sched- ule of Indian land cessions, many hundred in number, from the first in 1784 to August, 1894, are printed.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 689 were discovered by Columbus and his followers, that the twilight of their race had begun. The tubes that shot lightning, the canoes with wings, the black clothed medicine men, the new dress, all impressed them as something supernatural at first, but they soon found that the white manitous were not only human, but insatiably greedy of gold and slaves, malignantly cruel, and their gift of fire-water, which became the mammon of the natives for which they would make any sacrifice, was perhaps the most important agent in the downfall of the aborigines, among whom drunkenness had hitherto been a vice unknown. This new, intense appetite made them dependent on traders and agents, and with a keg of rum the white man could accomplish what diplomacy and war both failed to do. Added to all the friction, distrust, and rupture, there always lurked this insidious and baleful foe which makes men first fools and then beasts. Civilization always " takes barbarism by the hot end," and here the difference between the custom of the whites and the Indians was too great. First wel- comed as gods, the whites were soon regarded as devils. In 1494 Columbus sent home^ twelve ship-loads of Indian slaves; the same year Cabot, with two loads of English convicts, landed and carried home kidnapped Indians. In 1500 Cortereal took home fifty-seven hospitable natives, " admirably calculated for labor," for slaves. De Soto, bankrupt, butcher, tyrant — taught as a hero in our text-books — always returned welcome, with all his treachery, and was immensely devoted to what he called " this sport of killing Indians." We are proud if in our American ancestry we find Indian fighters; but while we are proud of their heroism we ought with equal candor to de- plore their massacres of braves, who had rather be shot than beg for mercy or toil in servitude. The Puritans, although they did not, like many pioneers, use every means to annoy and persecute them, still considered them " doomed and unconverted heathen " whom it was their duty to dispossess, " since the enemies of the Puritans were the enemies of God."
In 1607 Popham's men on the Maine coast hunted the Indians with dogs and imposed on them in every barter. Rev. Samuel Stod- dard, of Northampton, as late as 1703 advised hunting the Indians with dogs because they were thieves, murderers, acted like and must therefore be dealt with as wolves. The cruelty of Endicott, culminat- ing in many acts of treachery and aggression, alienated the Pequots and caused their war. All the horrors of the French and Indian wars, culminating in 1 754-^8, were directly caused by the unwar- rantable aggressions by the colonists. Both France and England used savage allies to do more bloody work than they cared for the repu- tation of doing themselves. The Indian was almost never the ag- gressor till forced to retaliation; the brutal massacre of the Indians at Pavonia the unbiased historian must ascribe to the cowardice of Van Twiller. The Esopus War of 1663 was due to rum on the part of the Indian and the brutality of the colonists. The massacre of 1652 in Virginia was due to white cruelty and rapacity. In the Caro- 690 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE linas the colonists purchased the friendship of single tribes, whom they employed to war against others. Both the Spaniards in Florida and the French in Canada tortured Indian captives and mangled their bodies. The Puritans exulted over King Philip's grief for the loss of his wife and child, whom they had sold into West Indian slavery. Virginian cavaliers, Swedes, and Dutchmen alike regarded the In- dians as having no rights they were bound to respect. Even in the soul of William Penn there was a strange union of business shrewd- ness and benevolence. The fact that all Indian land was owned by the tribe and not by individuals was an excuse for many territorial aggressions.
The barbarities of trappers and the villainies of fur traders and the vices of borderers are mainly responsible for the present bad character ascribed to Indians. The conspiracy of Pontiac in 1763 was due to the aggressions of fur traders, soldiers, and settlers; the war with Tecumseh was an open violation of the land treaty; the Creek troubles in Georgia in 1813 were due to the National Govern- ment's effort to extinguish all Indian titles in that State; the Black Hawk War in 1832 was caused by endless insults and aggressions of pioneers upon this ancient chieftain; the Seminole War in 1835 was one of the most outrageous aggressions of lawless frontiersmen; the Cayuse massacre of Oregon missionaries in 1847 was due to Jesuit priests; the California massacre of 1851 to gold hunters; the Sioux and Cheyenne massacres in 1854 to the Mormon outrages; the Oregon and Klickitat wars of 1855 to attacks of white traders; the Digger War of 1858 was simple slaughter of inoffensive Indians who drove off cattle found eating their acorns; the Navajo revolt of 1858, the Apache outbreak of 1861, the Sioux War in 1862, the Arapahoe and Cheyenne attacks in 1864, the Sioux War in 1866, the Blackfeet out- break in 1869, the Modoc War of 1872, the Sioux War of 1876, the Nez Perce War of i876-'77, perhaps the worst of all, were due almost solely to the weakness or dishonesty and folly of agents: every one of these was essentially causeless and could have easily been avoided.1 Civilization seems certain to fall out with savagery, and although the Indians may number about as many to-day as they did when the country was discovered, so that their decline in numbers is relative, their decline in virtue and stamina is absolute. General Crook, whose life was largely passed among the Indians, declared that they were the intellectual peers of the other races that we have assimilated. Others have urged that they have the right of sending a delegate to Congress, and General Wordsworth declared that there were many Indian chiefs who would not disgrace its floor. In some of their later wars they have displayed a skill and courage that evoked uni- versal praise, adopting many of the white man's methods, scalping 1 See E. S. Brooks: Story of the American Indian, his Origin, Development, Decline, and Destiny. Boston, 1887. Also G. Friederici: Indianer u. Anglo- Amerikaner. Braunschweig, 1900, p. 147.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 691 no one, and freeing women and children. The very quintessence of the spirit of chivalry lives still among the Indians, and plenty of instances of highest honor are shown. Huxley was right in de- claring that if he had to choose between life in the worst quarter of a great city and life with the most barbarous tribe known, he would undoubtedly choose the latter, for the savage has sunshine, light, air, and freedom. Spotted Tail, Red Jacket, Samoset, Massasoit, Anilco, Tomochi-chi, Pontiac, and many other famous Indians, have been distinguished for courtesy, eloquence, honor, cordial hospitality, and Crooks calls King Philip the American " Rob Roy." Black Hawk, as restless as Philip and as ambitious as Pontiac, is called one of the last- warriors of the early Indian school, and his patriotism is well compared to that of Scanderbeg or Winkelried. Osceola was a half- breed, more cunning than honorable, but with great ability. We have treated the Indian neither as a citizen nor as a foreigner; for cen- turies they had occupied the entire continent, whereas now in this country they are restricted to some 250,000 square miles.
Joaquin Miller * spent five years among the Modocs, whom he describes as a " truly gentle savage," and who, he thinks, killed one white man to every hundred Indians slain on their many a St. Bar- tholomew's Eve. Every white man's hand was against him, and he had hair-breadth escapes for his friendliness to them. He describes the border desperadoes removed from all control by law, public opin- ion, and the press, and in whom every vile passion was let loose. He tells of their exalted religious conception under the brow of Mt. Shasta, their hospitality, their children so rarely needing correction because exempt from all temptations of civilization and having nat- ural outlets for their activities, their noble interpretation of totemism and of the Great Spirit, their contempt for a god that needs to send or sign a paper. He pleads for a real reservation which no white man should enter, where their habits and beliefs should be unmolested and where they be left to adopt such of our customs as they saw fit. It should be a great park in which they should be protected and allowed to work out their own destiny, to instruct us, and to teach others, as his life among them did the author, to hold aloof from many features of civilization, to love nature, and hate the " moral cannibalism where souls eat souls." The beauty, devotion, and pathetic death of Paquita in the chaparral, Calle Shasta, the last of her race, pathetically alone, lost and out of place, her heart full of memories, with none living who knew her native language, appeal to the heart if not to the an- thropologist.
Helen Hunt's a sad story of broken faith and treaties may well make us wonder that men can so trifle with justice or with God's anger. Even our soldiers have often found it hard to fight those they knew were in the right. Bishop Whipple calls the Indian the noblest 1 Life Among the Modocs. An unwritten history. London, 1873, p. 400. * A Century of Dishonor. New York, 1885.
692 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE type of heathen man on earth. To read the outrages, butcheries, nameless crimes and torturings which are compiled from official rec- ords makes the mouth grow dry, the eyes wet, the heart throb, the teeth and fists clinch, and the soul to cry out whether there is no justice in heaven or on earth.
If these books present the worst, the story of Metlakahtla shows perhaps the best of all modes of treatment. In 1857 these savages, 3,000 to 4,000 in number, were cannibals, dog-eaters, devil dancers, abjectly subject to their shaman. William Duncan, hearing of them, left a promising business career and sailed around Cape Horn to them, and was the first to study their tongue. Taking his life in his hand, he ventured among them from the fort, told them that he came to them with a letter from God, and chiefly studied their lives to obtain a sympathetic insight into their points of view. Finding a few who accepted his chieftainship, he made a log schoolhouse for children and for adults, and was esteemed a man with a new magic. Mr. Wellcome * tells of many hair-breadth escapes, misconceptions, the desperate opposition of the medicine men; how he became interpreter for the traders; was local magistrate; healed many quarrels; treated sequestered patients for measles and smallpox; set up a sawmill; taught the Indians to make a large bar of soap for sixpence for which the company had charged two dollars, and thereby improved their extreme filthiness; waged a far more bitter war with the whites who sold drink than with the Indians themselves; tried to mitigate the sexual degradations that were developed by proximity to the whites, and finally decided to evade some of the obstacles that beset his path by establishing an isolated model community twenty miles from the fort, with good fishing, hunting, harbor, and gardens. He required all who entered it to pledge that they would cease gambling, drinking, the practise of deviltry, savage medicine; to rest and go to church on Sunday; send their children to school; be clean, industrious, peace- ful, and honest; build a house and pay the tax. Fifty at first em- barked to this asylum and were soon joined by others. Mr. Duncan organized a village council of twelve, including three chiefs, and a native constabulary; built two hotels for visiting traders and Indians to prevent contamination; dug wells; formed a common and play- ground where many games were encouraged; fought slavery in a very degraded form which existed all about him; prevented the sell- ing of children, and the reckless giving away of all property at great potlatches; imprisoned liquor dealers; built a trading vessel; formed a stock company and a bank, with blankets for money; allowed all officers to wear a badge; himself publicly flogged offenders; went to the old country to learn blacksmithing, coopering, brush and broom making, weaving, spinning, and many other arts, which he taught 1 The Story of Metlakahtla, by Henry S. Wellcome. London and New York, ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 693 his people; organized a brass band of twenty-one instruments, and a fire brigade; his little company soon grew to ten or twelve hundred people, and their influence began to leaven the surrounding tribes far into the interior, and up and down the coast the white man's ways were pronounced good.
Mr. Duncan proved himself a great practical missionary genius. He was not only pastor, but treasurer, teacher, physician, trader, judge, and friend. He reformed their funeral methods, where widows and slaves were sometimes burned on a bier; slowly transformed the tribal system; improved cooking; established an immense salmon can- nery; never told them that his God was better than theirs, but that he was one who stocked the sea and rivers with fish and the forests with game; taught by the example of his own pure and honest life; was a good bookkeeper and kept his records open to all. He soon organized a rifle company, a two-gun battery, a cooperative store; did not transform their totem post dwellings at first, but gradually improved them by introducing chimneys, windows, doors, floors above the ground, flowers in the front and gardens in the rear; built a market house and a small calaboose; organized a police system; and, layman though he was, grasped and put in practise the true science of civilization.
Traders, liquor dealers, and the Church sought to drag him down. An English bishop insisted that he must introduce the full English ritual. Mr. Duncan objected that he dare not use the sacrament of wine because of their passion for it and the well-settled law by which all who touched it were imprisoned. Neither did he dare teach the real presence of Christ's body in the bread to former cannibals, but pre- ferred to endure the charge of teaching a false and mutilated Chris- tianity and chose to be evangelical rather than ecclesiastical.
During one of his absences a cyclone evangelist almost destroyed his work by a few weeks of fanatical preaching. The English Church Missionary Society by false representations was induced to ask him to resign, but every soul in his church urged him to stand by them in their supreme peril and trial, and he consented. The resident bishop set up a rival school and tempted his chief teacher by higher wages; strove to cripple the financial resources of the church; and finally, after a long series of insidious misrepresentations in England and Canada and efforts to undermine Mr. Duncan in his own field, succeeded in inducing Sir John Macdonald to take possession in the name of the Crown of the lands on which the settlement was built without offering any compensation. Denunciations of robbery and comparisons with the policy of the States in always buying Indian lands were of no avail, and at last it was decided to remove the entire colony into Alaska, a distance of about thirty miles, so as to come under the jurisdiction of the United States. Mr. Duncan preached their cause in the influential churches in the East, where he secured sufficient support to move, although Canadian law was so interpreted that they could not take down and transfer their houses, but at last 694 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE with secure tenure they became established in their new home in 1888 and a new era was begun.
This treatment by the Canadian Government almost provoked the Indians to commence warfare and relapse to their old savage con- dition. The real trouble was not with the Indians, but with the white man, who was blinded partly by insatiable greed and partly by igno- rance of all Indian nature and ways. The whole secret, Mr. Duncan declares, is to look at the Indian as a whole, body and soul, to study and above all to trust him. The missionary must not attack their customs, even the bad ones, at first, until he has some vantage-ground on which to work, and must be filled with the spirit of compromise. Our method of doling supplies to Indians as bribes to be quiet and to terrorize them if they are not, is the worst possible way, and the present state of most Indians in this country is a disgrace, not to them but to us. Their ability to make noble men of themselves has been demonstrated over and over again. In some respects they are our superiors, but we have developed their bad and allowed their good qualities to languish or become extinct.
Says E. W. James: l " So complex, indeed, is the Hopi's religious life that we have no complete calendar as yet of all the ceremonies that he feels called upon to observe. Every act of his life from the cradle to the grave has a religious side. Fear and the need for pro- pitiation are the motive powers of his religious life, and these, com- bined with his stanch conservatism, render him a wonderfully fertile subject for study as to the workings of the child-mind of the human race."
Much as our Indian policy, bureau, and special schools have improved, noble as have been the endeavors of individuals and of the Mohawk Conference, these are all yet very inadequate and sometimes as wrong as they are well meant. So hostile is Colonel Pratt of the Carlisle School to the tribal system that he would stamp it out and prevent the young brave from returning to his tribe. Morgan has shown the vast chasm that separates this consanguineous clan system, which has pervaded the ancient world, even Greece and Rome, from our modern organization. Some of the New York Indian tribes have lived in the midst of white civilization for seventy-five years without impairing their integrity as a tribe. The Numas also show its per- sistence by an unique dual organization. A chief regulates all internal affairs on the old basis, while the medicine man is specialized to represent the tribe in all matters relating to the whites about them. The present Superintendent of Indian Schools advocates compulsory education of all Indian children, especially industrially. But their own industries, now languishing, are, as I have shown in Chapter III, if not more numerous and more truly educative than the trades we have learned to teach, at least their own. They could be thus self-supporting, for the demand for their products far exceeds the supply.
1 The Indian of the Painted Desert. 1903, p. 82, ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 695 The refinements of a modern cooking-school are distasteful to an Indian girl, and sloyd for them is pedagogic vanity. The plan of creating distaste for the Indian mode of life and breaking up the home, and allowing basketry, pottery, bead work, moccasins, flint chipping, weaving, bow, arrow, and canoe making, skin dressing, and all the rest to go the way of the lost arts is not on the line of devel- oping natural tastes and abilities. Their unique music, too, will soon be lost.1 Zitkala-sa has told us of the modes of wigwam training, the unfettered individuality of really artistic self-expression in baskets, pottery, loom work, and drawing, which the wisest of us can profit by. She says her mother required original designs for her lessons in beading; made her finish everything that was begun; had no pa- tience with lack of symmetry or insufficient characterization; made her feel responsible and dependent on her own judgment; and treated her as a dignified little individual as long as she was good. When her