1 History of Indigenous Education in the Punjab since Annexation and in '882, by G. W. Leitner, LL. D. Calcutta, 1883.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 71* he teaches, and thus reincarnates his soul, which might be reborn over and over by love of youthful studies. Genius is common in India, which only lacks means of communication to bring it to fame, and a savant's life is often so devoted to study that his curriculum is his biography, and his culture, instead of making him restless like that of the West, gives him poise and repose. Teaching is essentially secret, and even the native shorthand, bookkeeping, lexicography, poetry, litera- ture, and rhetoric are regarded as the crown of all human possessions.
These ideals, and schools which represented them, Leitner found in danger of extinction and devoted himself to their revival, adding only a little English and a few scientific rudi- ments as a happy combination between the East and the West. He retained old teachers, methods, and subjects, simply in- creasing the teachers' fees wherever the new topics were added. This policy, however, did not conform to England's idea of forcing her Hindu subjects to take up the white man's burden, and was not only abandoned, but I have looked in vain through later Government reports, and even in Chamberlain's more or less official History of Education in India, published in 1901, to find any reference to Leitner or the great move- ment started in about 1,000 schools.
In even the Straits Settlement, where so much has been accomplished in so short a time, the very situation is demoral- izing.1 In the words of a recent writer, " the relation of con- queror to conquered is an odious one and closely resembles that of master to slave. It inevitably makes the one overbear- ing, arrogant, and unscrupulous, and the other deceitful and time-serving...No man can bear to be constantly reminded of his inferiority, but neither can any man bear to be constantly reminded of his superiority."
Conquered people have in the past been often slaughtered and enslaved, but often, even in antiquity, amalgamated. Castes in India, Helots in Sparta, and aboriginal people, who have been overslaughed when other races multiplied so fast 1 The Growth and Political Organization of the Federated Malay States, by Francis B. Forbes. Submitted to the Senate with the President's Message, Janu- ary 4, 1899. Also Sidney Brooks: The Example of the Malay States. Forum, 7 12 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE they had to trek, have led some theorists to assume that human evolution required a lower servile and alien race. The dis- content of subjugated races is in strong contrast with the alle- giance of emigrants.1 In his chapter on the government of dependencies by a free state in his Representative Government, John Stuart Mill declares that a government of a people by itself has a mean- ing and reality, but such a thing as a government of one people by another does not and can not exist. One people, he continues, may keep another as a warren or preserve or human cattle farm for its profit, but this is very far from securing the good of the governed. How, he asks, would the English be ruled if they knew and cared no more about their own affairs than they do about those of the Hindus? Those who go to foreign parts to get rich are those who most of all need restraint, and are prone to think it monstrous that any rights of the natives should stand in their way. More- over, " the settlers, not the natives, have the ear of the public at home."
" A dependency," says C. F. Adams,2 " is not merely a possession but a trust, to be dealt with in a large altruistic spirit. I submit that there is not an instance in all recorded history, from the first precedent to that now making, where a so-called inferior race or community has been elevated in its character or made self-sustaining and self-governing, or even put on the way to that result, through a condition of depend- ency or tutelage."
" It is a curious fact," says Dilke,3 " that the English races have more generally destroyed the native races with which they have come in contact in their young settlements than has been the case with other colonizing peoples, but have destroyed the natives only afterward to enter into a conflict with other dark or yellow races whose efficiency as laborers seems equal to their own. While the destruction of the native races by the British races in countries where the English can labor out of doors is generally complete, it is the fact that other European races who have set to work to destroy the natives in similar countries have not succeeded, and that the English 1 H. C. Morris: History of Colonization. 2 vols. New York, 1900.
2 An Undeveloped Function. American Historical Review, January, 1902. 8 Problems of Greater Britain, p. 535.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 7J3 people have often destroyed them when trying hard to keep them in existence." He deplores that while in British colonies many inter- esting political and social experiments are being tried, the colonies of the Crown know little of each other.
In England the evolution of the idea of colonies has passed three stages. The old system closed with the revolt of America, before which colonies were conceived as existing solely for the benefit of the sovereign state. They were an asset to yield as much profit as possible. In the next stage there was a strong body of British sentiment in favor of cast- ing off colonies. In 1870 Froude insisted " that our colonies are a burden to us and the sooner they are cut adrift from us the better." The third stage, Ireland * thinks, was reached about 1897. It grew indirectly out of the scramble of the continental powers for parts of Africa, which began in 1884, for it was then that France became animated with the old colonial idea that had made her great in the seventeenth century, and which was expressed in 1882 by Leroy-Beaulieu, who said that colonial expansion was now " a question of life or death for France." In England the celebration of the Queen's Jubilee, in 1897, was a powerful stimulant to the imperial idea, and it is now felt that the task of civilizing lower races is a thing to be attempted.
Russia's method has been almost purely agricultural, with heavy blows followed by great mildness and toleration. She excels all others in the East, says Reinsch, because she is semi- Oriental and not far above the Asiatic tribes. Her mastery of Oriental diplomacy is complete, and the splendor of her system impresses the East more than do the simple business methods of the Briton. Germany wins her way by her fin- ished commercial, mercantile, and industrial methods. Her Government follows her people. Her rule is too military and bureaucratic, while the French love home too much, and if abroad wish to feel the administration always behind them. In all colonies now the question of labor is coming to the front, and this is ominous for the natives, and institutions to train for colonial life are multiplying.2 This began in Eng- 1 Tropical Colonization. New York, 1899.
* Colonial Civil Service. A. L. Lowell. New York, 1900.
84 7J4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE land with the college at Haileybury in 1806. France estab- lished its Cambodian in 1885, and the Dutch had one long before, and now Britain has the new London School of Tropi- cal Medicine founded in 1899. These institutions are slowly coming to admit more and more matter from the country trained into their curriculum, expensive as this differentia- tion is.
Just now the white race is gathering itself up for an ex- traordinary new unity and a further step in advance. Man- kind is endeavoring to realize its past and its present, and to anticipate its future. This new cosmic slogan impavidi pro- grediamur is now understood as never before in biological experiments in heredity, in partitioning all that yet remains unappropriated of the world among a few leading powers, and in compelling the remnant of humanity to subject itself as a corpus vile to the fiat experimentum of colonization and education. This makes the end of the century epoch ful and momentous. Everything must henceforth have world-wide dimensions and be seen in cosmic relations. What a few over- grown races call civilization seems likely to be forced upon the entire world.
The recent transition from nationalism to imperialism and the attempts at unwilling assimilation of races, like the Irish, Poles, and Finns, are certainly hardly reconcilable with the philosophy of universal peace as proclaimed by Saint-Pierre and Kant, nor indeed with the world community ideas of international law since Grotius and Suarez. The Nietzsche view that victorious force is the snmmum bonum well comports with the ideas of various German historians, that superior nations must civilize inferior by force if necessary. Says a recent writer,1 " It is an inexorable law of progress that in- ferior races are made for the purpose of serving superior, and if they refuse to serve they are fatally condemned to disap- pear." This view, that each nation must assert itself to the utmost, assumes that force is the only criterion of fitness, and ignores the fact that civilization must from time to time change both its agents and its nature. Under the influence of this spirit, modern statesmen are seeking to found empires, as a 1 Quoted in World Politics, by Paul S. Reinsch, p. 12.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 715 few decades ago they di<l t«> found nations. Hence, sea power lias a new importance as compared with standing armies, and all appreciation of the real virtues of humble races is rapidly being lost. All this had undoubtedly been influenced in part, and in part expressed by the aristocratic tendencies of the new philosophy of the survival of the best and the view that the interests of the world are favored by the full development of great individuals rather than by the happiness of the multi- tude, which our cherished ideas of democracy have hitherto made supreme. The age almost appears as though its con- sciousness was to be again the helpless victim of historical forces or destinies, which were to rush it along too rapidly for intelligence to fully grasp the meaning of tendencies. Pobye- donostseff's recent book 1 is pervaded with the conviction that the Western world is dying with the fatal diseases of anarchy, infidelity, individualism, and corruption, and that Russia with her autocracy, piety, and village community system is to bear the light of the world.
Nearly all the world inhabitable by man is now known. There can be no more great voyages of discovery as in the fifteenth century save only toward the poles, barren of life. Expeditions like those of Livingstone and Stanley are now forever impossible. On the map of the Geographical Society, the areas of land designated as unexplored are few and grow- ing rapidly smaller. Although, of course, a vast body of scientific knowledge concerning mineral resources, fossil remains, plant and animal species, manners and customs, etc., is yet awaited, the preliminary survey of the world of man is essentially complete. This fact alone marks a great epoch in the world's history. The expansion of knowledge has seen here a limit which had never been realized before. We are now practically sure that there is no living pithecanthropoid or even Neanderthal race, and as our knowledge of man is rounding up we realize his isolation and uniqueness as a species by himself, who has surpassed all animals and been the most ferocious and deadly in the use of his sovereignty over the animal world, exterminating species that he could not domesticate, and himself the author of the wide and still 1 Reflections of a Russian Statesman.
716 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE widening gap between the lowest of his species and the high- est animals, because he has killed off the missing links.
One of the first effects of realizing this new limit has been the competition of the leading nations to appropriate all available territory, or to acquire spheres of paramount inter- est wherever that of other dominant races was not confirmed. But one remarkable fact of the new century is a new cosmic consciousness with many manifestations and a new sense of solidarity among all the peoples of the earth. Christianity has long dreamed of universal dominion, remote as this ideal still is of realization, and uncoordinated as are yet the efforts of the various missionary bodies, the efficiency of which, co- operation between them would vastly increase. The con- viction that Christianity is an. ultimate and final form of religion beyond which there can be no better or higher one, on the one hand, and that it is fit for the needs of all people, on the other, is ineradicable from Christian faith. The laws of disease, especially of those that are contagious, are essentially the same for all men, so that medical regulations, it is urged, should be universal. Universal weights and measures for the world have their ardent advocates. Sympathy with suffering and calamity in its remotest part is now world-wide. Postal regulations almost give us a world postal system. Commerce knows no limitations save those of tariff and is knitting the world into closer and closer dependency. Inventions, me- chanic arts, and labor-saving devices immediately become international and are everywhere encroaching upon rude or indigenous forms of industry. The weather bureaus hardly recognize national lines; fashions ignore them, and so do the sciences. We have had many tentatives toward the formation of a world language or Volapuk; 1 world coinage; a universal religion and philosophy; a w^orld police that should fight famines as well as suppress disorder; while arbitration, in- ternational law, and philosophy are all beginning to think more deeply and broadly and have new dreams of finality, and of a new meaning of the old Catholic idea, semper ubique et ab omnibus; while we hear much that is vague concerning a 1 See a tentative universal phonetic system to express the sounds of all languages, in Fed. Sem., December, 1903.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 7*7 new world, ethics, world conscience, world politics, of the Atlantic as an Anglo-Saxon sea, and the Pacific as a new Mediterranean, of globe-circling in sixty days, etc.
All these influences make for growing homogeneity among mankind. Costumes and manners lose their local pro- vincial types and approximate. Customs, ancient beliefs, and even religions weaken in their hold, and men tolerate all things because they doubt. The so-called higher races force the lower to take up the white man's burden, t and soon the latter vie with the former in their worship of Mars, Bacchus, and Mammon. Low races are imitative and superficial re- semblances soon deepen. The school, which England especially and most colonizing nations use as a method of promoting conformity, is so uniform wherever it is found that the school system, provided for the savage but vanishing Maori in Madagascar, was lately called by Sir Joshua Fitch the most complete and perfect in the world. Uniformity is for many the most inspiring ideal and the brightest of all goals of endeavor. It is also simple and easy. Accept baptism and the creed, refrain from certain open gross forms of vice, and the Hottentot is a Christian. Add to these a few windy mouthfuls of effusive phrases, and the half illiterate southern negro becomes an exhorter, although the spirit of voodoo in- cantation dominates in both his own soul and that of his hearers. It will be a dreary and monotonous world if the dreams of the jingoes of modern culture and uniformity are realized. As we travel around the world, everywhere we shall have steam and electricity; modernized costume and custom; the schoolhouse and the three R's; the Sunday church bell; the individuality of races slowly fading; their ideas growing pale in a common menstruum; possibly war elimi- nated by the parliament of man in a world federation; the food supply and population enormously increasing; no illit- erates— this is a millennium which has little charm for the biologist.
No race ideal has ever been more narrow, provincial, or banausic. It is a colossal assumption that what we call civi- lization is the end of man, or the best thing in the world. If history has any lesson larger and more impressive than all others, it is that both races and national types of culture have 7 -'8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE their day, grow old and die. Each form of civilization culti- vates certain powers of man, perhaps excessively, while others lie dormant or are even repressed. Every race, where fertility or the number of viable offspring is declining, is descendent or decadent, and has failed in more factors of the great prob- lem of human development than it has succeeded in. The nations they represent may grow by immigration and increase in wealth and power, but it is all factitious and artificial. The world belongs to the fertile races. The best test of the success of the methods of treating subject races is fertility. Just as no animal can be domesticated that does not breed in cap- tivity, so no race is really helped by the dominance of another if reproduction declines. If, on the other hand, population increases more rapidly in a subject race; if the average of longevity is augmented, we have the cardinal signs of benefit from the relation. We of the highest civilization have left as it were large brain areas fallow; culture factors of the highest importance have been neglected, and indeed perhaps always must be where supreme excellence in others is at- tained, so that " barbarism with electric lights " is always and everywhere possible. Our type of civilization may be better in most, as it certainly is in some, respects than any other, but it is at best only a certain group of excellences, and although we are the bearers of the world-consciousness at present, it by no means follows that the highest human perfectibility is along the lines that we have thus far followed. Greece and Rome were just as confident of their own eternal superiority over all barbarians, but if they had conquered the Germans, progress would have had no relay when the ancient states fell. In its very nature, civilization must perhaps rise, culminate, and then decline; not primarily by reason of extirpation from without but by exhaustion from within, or perhaps because certain areas or granules of the brain, which may itself be still developing, are overworked and others must be developed. Ratzel urges in substance that we have treated the gap between the natural and civilized races with an indolence that was content with the mere record of novelties and romantic interest. Toward the end of the last century popular belief was profoundly influenced by Rousseau, who thought the happiest existence to be a state of nature remote from civi- ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 719 lization. As interest in this problem became intellectual rather than sentimental and under the influence of evolution- ary theories, the opposite view prevailed. Origins, which are everywhere sought, it is believed are approached just in pro- portion as we find human races degraded. While those who study religion and language now incline to the theory of decadence and degeneration, evolutionists, if they do not hold that there is everywhere only progress and no decay, are most interested in the lowest races which are thought nearest to the brutes. This distinction of upper and lower must yield to the distinction between forward and belated. Primitive races must now be regarded rather as on an equal stage of evolution, or at least one that does not differ much from our own, but as deprived of their share of culture, hence arrested and stunted. We must drop the view that seeks in the lower races missing links between animals and man. " There exist Europeans morally degraded below the level of the Austra- lians. This sad faculty of being or becoming like the brutes is unhappily present in all men, in some a little more and in others a little less, whether it manifests itself with more or less frequency and plainness depends merely on the degree of acquired capacity of dissimulation, which often corresponds to that of civilization." The idea, therefore, of natural races " involves nothing anthropological or physical, but is purely one of ethnography and civilization." Natural races are na- tions in the process of development. " The thousands of tribes whom civilized men lightly call savages, correspond to different periods of existence set out at regular distances on the roadway of ages." The old Germans and Gauls appeared no less uncivilized beside Roman civilization than do Kaffirs or Polynesians beside ours. " The gap which differences of civilization create between two groups of human beings is in truth quite independent, whether in its depth or in its breadth, of the difference in their mental endowments." " Let us only look outside the border of the brief and narrow course of events which we arrogantly call the history of the world and we shall have to recognize that members of every race have borne their part in the history that lies beyond— the history of primeval and prehistoric times."
Savage tribes as a rule have little wealth, slight class dis- 720 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE tinctions, no laws or courts, no ignorance or learning, but, as Wallace urges, usually have great respect for others' rights. They may be unprogressive, but may have reached a perfect solidarity where each loves and works for all and equilibrium has been established. The arts may be only rudimentary; there is little variety, yet in justice, well-being and happiness these large tribal families, both prehistoric and contemporary, closed to outsiders, are at the very least in some cases and in some respects ahead of us. They may be as unprogressive as Ranke says history is, which he argues shows no real improve- ment, but it is certain that the slums of modern cities abound in people really lower and often far more degraded than those we call savages. It seems at any rate to be a law that the lower stratum of the more civilized people do not progress, although many will deny the statement of Reclus that on the whole civilization shows no moral advance beyond savagery. While in many cases it is hard to distinguish between ascending and descending races, in many instances the differ- ence is manifest. Ploetz l thinks that the Frenchmen and Yankees are sinking, and most West Aryans, European Jews, English, Dutch, and Scandinavians are rising races. The Zunis, the descendants of the ancient Peruvians and of the old rulers of Yucatan; are oft-cited illustrations of decadence. Virchow thought Lapps and Bushmen pathological and de- graded by hunger and want. Sir H. Bartle Frere 2 thinks there is no limit to the improvement of the Kaffirs and in- stances the extraordinary career of Tyo Soga. Although he holds that most African races were descending when the Europeans came, he instances the remarkable vigor of all the great Bantu family, and especially the Bechuanas, the best of the Zulus, and the rare ability of such chiefs as Chaka, who united many tribes, had a coward-tree where all who mani- fested fear were slain after every battle, and who ruled with great justice and sagacity, and Cetewayo who for some time kept England at bay. The difficulty of making this discrimi- nation causes us constantly to confound ethnic infancy with old age. Reclus 3 tells of an experienced traveler who found 1 Tiichtigkeit unserer Rasse und der Schutz der Schwachen. Berlin, 1895. s Jour. Anthrop. Inst., 1882, p. 313 et seq.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 721 a fine and happy tribe in Africa really living close to nature, who was philosopher enough to declare that they would be justified in killing him for discovering them, and few will dissent from his statement that the American Indians would be better to-day had they never met white men.