From the map of distribution of mission societies, according to fields, we find that India leads, with 114 societies; Africa has 104; China, 77; Central and South America, 39; West Indies, 33; Malay- sia, 24; Turkey and Australasia, 18 each; Mexico and Syria, 14 each; Oceanica and Ceylon, 1 1 each; Burma and Canada, 9 each; Mada- gascar, 7; and Persia, 4. Territorially, the portions of the habitable globe totally unreached are Tibet, Afghanistan, portions of Central Africa and Central South America, and many Pacific islands. If we consider population instead of territory, we find there are very many unoccupied sections in all the denser lands.
The Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions was planned in 1886, but organized in 1888 at Mount Hermon. It aims: ( i ) To awaken among all students of the United States and Canada interest in foreign missions; (2) to enroll enough to meet demands; (3) to help those intending to go to foreign fields to prepare for their life work, and secure their aid in awakening interest in the home churches; (4) to arouse a sense of responsibility in ministers and lay workers at home. It has done valuable service in promoting a sys- tematic study of missions among students. A special secretary, Rev. H. P. Beach, now supervises 309 classes, with an average attendance of 4,212, for whom text-books have been prepared and libraries begun in many colleges. A kindred British movement has been be- gun, and others have followed in the chief countries of Europe. The World's Student Christian Federation was formed in Sweden in 1895, and federates all national evangelical student movements. It aims to unite students, collect data of all kinds, and to deepen interest.
Concerning the attitude of missionaries toward ethnic religions, the sanest and most advanced statement I can find is that of Dr. J. L. Barton, secretary of the American Board, who believes that every missionary is " eager to find and emphasize the excellences that he found in the religions of the people to whom he was sent." Many, he declares, search the sacred writings of the races with whom ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 733 they labor, to prove to them that they are not living up to the best they have, sometimes taking texts and teaching the heart of the pagan audiences by showing to them their own unworthiness as measured by their own standard. But he goes on to say that they do, and should hasten to add that Christianity is better. There is, however, abundant reason to fear that this spirit of sympathetic appreciation is still too rare. But yet rarer is the reserve that withholds the higher truth until sufficient preparation has been made for its reception in the native soil.
Hopkins l says the missionaries " presented Christianity as a se- vere legal Jewish religion." " In their rigorous Sabbatarian view of the Lord's Day, in their desire to enforce a Maine liquor law, and in some other matters, they have attempted to infringe upon the natural rights of men and have reproduced in native eyes the detested taboo system, the nightmare from which the nation escaped in 1820. They have been wrong in their hothouse plan of forcing Christianity upon an unprepared people; endeavoring to make them run before they could walk or even stand alone; pouring water out of buckets on small-mouthed vials,*and by using the methods of secular punishments and espionage, converting the nation into hypocrites instead of Chris- tians." The legislation they have used has been repressive; they long set their face against the teaching of the English language, and in many cases, although with striking exceptions, their missionaries had personal disqualifications. They have been mostly Puritan Yankees, and their churches are plain naked buildings, the congregation sit- ting through the whole service, taking no part in prayer or hymn. The Catholic Church, which came in later, enlisted very many of the native faculties which Protestantism did not touch. The former encourages the natives to come in whatever dress they have; urges all to kneel, stand, read; and has sent a class of missionaries of whom all speak with respect. Protestant missionaries taught fiercely and insisted on a severe blue law code of morals, which the native temperament did not resist but evaded, and which has neither devel- oped the crude but strong ideas of right and wrong and other native virtues and industries in the men, nor maintained fecundity in the women. Men must learn to listen to conscience and treat the disease and not its symptoms. They must teach life and not the subtleties of theology; convert individuals and not masses; and not be too impatient of showing rapid and immediate results.
Lieut.-Colonel Maekler-Ferryman gives a sickening account of the long competition of Protestant, Catholic, and Mohammedan mis- sionaries to win the court of the Uganda chiefs, Mutesa and his suc- cessor Mwanga. In 1876 Stanley had suggested this as a great mis- sion-field, and Mackay's work here is well known. Like the Japanese, they desired to renounce their old beliefs and to select a religion that 1 Hawaii: Its Past, Present, and Future, by Manley Hopkins. New York, 734 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE would suit them best. Had the two sections of the Christian world not quarreled one of the most marvelous conversions of an entire population the world ever saw would have occurred here. The Cath- olic and Protestant faction warred on each other, and many were slaughtered, till the latter prince denounced all alien faiths and threat- ened both Mohammedan and Christian with extermination. In 1889 the Arabs were masters. Later the king became a Catholic and sought to divide the land and offices between the three religions. Then a plot was laid to exterminate the Protestants. At last, in 1900, Lugard, a Protestant, backed by the British arms and a Christian company, pacified the factions. With the triumph of English influ- ence, the Protestant missionaries made very rapid progress. In 1902 there were two hundred churches, with congregations estimated at 20,000, and 2,408 native teachers. Catholic missions have also pros- pered. Now the country is Christian, although, but for the tact of a Lugard, " in all probability the Christians in Uganda would have exterminated themselves." The writer asks in conclusion, '" Is it the role of the teacher of religion to prepare the way for annexation following after bloodshed? Why should not missionaries restrict their work in Africa to the enormous tracts of pagan countries that have been brought under the direct jurisdiction of the several European powers instead of endeavoring to rush ahead in search of fresh ground? Yet Great Britain has hitherto considered it her duty to get missionaries out of difficulties, and will doubtless continue to consider it her duty to do so. For that reason missionaries should be chary of involving their country." l If there is ever a science of missions, it must be based on the same kind of study but yet more detailed and psychologic, as that of which the work of Lawrence is such a stimulating and suggestive beginning. Mission work must not be all proc- lamation, but must carry on the work to results and have the ideal of independence. It must teach men to count three before talking to them of the trinity; it must grapple with the Chinese language, " which has four thousand words for vices and passions and none for spiritual graces "; the gospel must first be presented to the understanding because that is the only way to the heart; it must be disinterested, and not always study what we get for what we give; it must not be sustained because it creates a native demand for foreign goods sometimes computed as averaging so much a year for each missionary. There should be for each candidate for the field, first a physical examination and certificate of health as for an 1 Christianity in Uganda. Jour, of the African Soc., April, 1903.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 735 arctic expedition; robust common sense; a good deal of power in learning foreign and uncouth languages to the point of mastery; an enthusiasm that often greatly quickens talent, and a far greater degree of freedom in the field for all such men than they now enjoy. Special seminaries for missionary instruction are needed as well as far more trained university men; careful and sympathetic study of comparative religions and the philosophy and, perhaps still more, the psychology of belief; and as much medical and handicraft knowledge as possible, so that missionary work be given greater breadth, complexity, closer relation with home and personal life.
Every novice ought to have a manual of condensed mis- sionary experiences as his vade mecum. No history of mis- sions gives this, but most are taken up with statistics of the number of converts and sentimental panegyrics of the saving power of the gospel. The whole burden of heathendom should press upon the newcomer in a strange land, so that friends seem far. He should serve a prolonged apprenticeship under experienced masters, who should at least prevent him from learning three hundred Chinese characters upside down, as did one. During the probationary period the language must b"e well learned, so that natives may not pray, as one did, for mercy upon their linguistic blunders. Soul and body must be laboriously acclimated. The educational work should generally be increased relatively to evangelization as a dis- cipline for the missionaries alone; were there no results, these stations would be worth while.
The proper attitude toward heathen customs and religions is one of the gravest questions, and the heart of the educator sinks to see how small consideration these seem entitled to receive even at the hands of the most liberal and enlightened writers. A few recommend the reading of a very limited number of the standard Indian and even Chinese works, but for most the conception of a rushing and ag- gressive emotional campaign is thought better. Dr. J. Thomson * says: " In west South Africa the missionaries pursue with astonish- ing blunders the most impracticable and visionary methods and ex- pect a pentecostal awakening from the inherent virtue of the great truths they preach instead of preaching what can be comprehended." In general, this criticism might be passed upon the missions in all 1Jour. Anthrop. Inst., 1886.
736 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE lands. Many conceive it their first duty to upset native faith. " What is your attitude," I asked of a missionary returned from twenty-five years in China, " toward native Confucianism and Buddhism?" " Our first duty," he replied, "is to exterminate them root and branch, make a tabula rasa, because only then can we begin to lay the true foundations." This is psycho-pedagogic barbarism and brutality. Only the most ignorant and bigoted do not now recognize the sympathy of religions or realize that there are many psychic and ethical roots, trunks, and even branches that should be preserved and grafted on to. To upset any religion is not only psychological wastefulness, but generally involves the gravest moral dangers. The whole soul of the religious propagandist must first of all be thoroughly vernacular- ized, although without loss to the positive matter.
The variety of work in the mission field is amazing. Every prac- tical and manual facility is helpful; preaching, organizing power, tact, scholarship, knowledge of human nature, and all this differs vastly according to the race and degree of civilization of the people. Adaptiveness or the power to be all things to all men, love of rough- ing it, the necessity of first civilizing and then Christianizing or basing evangelism on the alphabet and education, is the pedagogic way, and the reverse method has only a logical sanction. Disease and religious thought are so closely combined in primitive minds that every mission- ary should have a medical education, although he should not shrink into a mere doctor. The apex of the entering wedge of the Catholic mission by which it breaks its first way is its ritual, confession, and catechism; the Protestant's is practical life and the need of a divine suffering Saviour. Some missionaries have worked a lifetime and won hardly a single real convert, but this is what gives inspiration and encouragement. I have no disposition to either deify or abuse missionaries, but am saddened that, although all reforms involving practical applications of psychology are slow, the last few centuries have seen so little advance in these respects. It is of the utmost con- sequence that natives should not be denationalized or their usefulness among their own people impaired; that none should be unfitted for home life; that churches should become self-supporting as soon as possible; and that it should be borne in mind with great races that forests and not annual plants are being cultivated. Mission work is far more comprehensive than home work.
Many have insisted on teaching the English language, but the problem how far is a grave one; others have insisted on Hebrew or the classical languages; some on teaching indigenous religious and secular literature; some encourage the best students to finish their training in America or Europe. Problems like these require the largest, most statesmanly thought. Another class of questions is what words shall be used for sin, heaven, soul, God, baptism, church, and scores more; shall translations be literal, or free; what is the relation between theology and the plain Bible without note or com- ment— these are problems that require a rare combination of philolog- ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 737 ical knowledge and common sense. There certainly ought to be a chair on missions in every important theological school in Christen- dom. There should be a high-toned missionary journal far above the cheap mixture of alleged facts and statistics with cheaper sentimental- ity. There should be plenty of opportunity for studying comparative religions and each of the great religions sympathetically. In the great religious school centering in the library and collections of the Muscc Guimet in Paris, there are elaborate presentations of non-Christian re- ligious ceremonials by native priests in costume, and students and visitors try to feel the sentiments and think the thoughts of native worshipers. This noble institution supplies in an ideal form one of the ingredients of missionary, and even theological, education indi- cated here. There should also be some historical and philosophical teaching concerning pantheism, agnosticism, the various forms of skepticism.
No race, says Emile Barbe,1 has manifested any such aversion to what the Occident terms civilization as the Chinese, and yet centuries ago Catholicism gained very many believers among them. Instead of being a " negligible quantity," the Chinese, if Europeanized, would create an economic and perhaps a culture crisis that would be beyond all precedent. It is a calamity that in France colonial questions are the exclusive appanage of politicians and dominated by parliamentary combinations. Who knows but that, if progress be truly ethnographic, the yellow race may not outstrip the white? W. F. Lord has lately urged that our civilization must eventually be replaced by that of a race less overrefined but more vigorous. It is certainly rash 10 say that there is no salvation outside the white race. To reduce necessi- ties is practically equivalent to the increase in the sources of their supply, and certainly superiority of evolution is not measured by the increase of wants and needs. The politics of the future must not aim at suppressing Asiatic competition. It is idle to separate, by a Chinese wall, this race from our own, for that would be not only to reestablish the ancient class distinctions, but to make them more obnoxious on the industrial as well as the social plane.
There is every indication that the mission problem has not been solved in China, that land where " silks were worn while the Britons still wore skins," and even that missionary ignorance and blunders are largely responsible for present disturbances in that country. Japan, which never permitted an invading army and was long under the influence of China, is now psychologically the open door of en- trance. China is not only the home of one of the largest races, but one of the greatest colonizers, of whom General Grant said after his visit, " that while progress in the Mississippi Valley might be that of an ava- lanche, in the valley of the Yang-tse it could only be that of the gla- cier "; and Napoleon declared that when China moved, it would change 1 Le Lutte ethnographique et economique des Blancs et des Jaunes. Revue Scientifique, vol. lii, 1893, p. 513.
738 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE the face of the world. A prominent Californian lately said that " we must drive them out or they will drive us out, for they have all of our virtues and none of our vices." In all psychic respects they are our antipodes; their speech, religion, temper, and customs are still essen- tially unknown. Their self-righteousness destroys the sense of sin and quenches all such religious longings as characterize India. Their p.atriotism and conservatism make them hate innovations as insulting, treasonable, impious, and dangerous.
Henry Norman 1 says that the missionaries insist that foreign in- fluence, especially of a moral kind, has declined to nothing in China; that heathenism and immorality are both increasing; that China is learning evil far faster than good; and that the country never can be Christianized. He asserts a growing epidemic of ill-will of this fourth of the world toward the rest of it. " Foreign missionary effort in China has been productive of far more harm than good. Instead of serving as a link between Chinese and foreigners, the mission- aries have formed a growing obstacle." The results of missionary enterprise are summed up as having produced " for the Chinese Gov- ernment perpetual foreign coercion; for the Chinese nation, an in- cessant ferment of angry passions and a continuous education in ferocity against Christianity; for the foreign missionaries, pillage and massacre at intervals, followed by pecuniary indemnification — • an indefinite struggle with the hatred of a whole nation, compensated by a certain number of genuine converts to their faith." " The Roman Catholic missionary goes to China once for all; he adopts native dress, lives on native food, inhabits a native house, supports himself upon the most meager allowance from home, and is an example of the characteristics which are as essential to the Eastern idea of priesthood as to the Western — poverty, chastity, and obedi- ence...He meets native superstitions half-way by amalgamating the worship of ancestors, which is a vital part of every Chinaman's belief, to the worship of the saints; and by teaching his native con- verts a prayer for the Emperor of China, which concludes with the petition ' that he may be preserved to a happy old age, and the pros- perity of his empire prolonged to the end, that they may later enjoy with him the eternal peace.' " Norman, an ardent member of the Eng- lish Church and predisposed against everything Catholic, conceived great and growing respect for the missionaries of the Roman Church, and less for the Protestant missionary. He found him too fond of comfort, enjoying not only wife and children, but servants, foreign food, with a stipend that often increased with every addition to his family, jealous of Protestant rivals, etc. Protestantism has made the great mistake of distributing the whole Bible in Chinese, as much of it is held up to public ridicule. In Shanghai there were seven missions, representing seven denominations; seven Sunday sermons, seven daily prayer-meetings, seven sets of schools, seven sets of 1 The Peoples and Politics of the Far East. New York, 1895.
ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 739 buildings, seven sets of expenses, seven hymn-books, and four or five different versions of the Bible. " The Chinese themselves bracket missionaries and opium together as the twin curses of the country." While there have been a few Protestant missionaries of high charac- ter and scholarship, many are " ignorant declaimers in bad Chinese," and few have attained the sinological scholarship which is the only open door of success in this country. While some of the converts are genuine and sincere, others adopt Christianity as a profession which brings them new activities and revenue, and still others only lose native virtues to acquire foreign vices in their place.
Among the most remarkable travels of modern times are those of Mrs. J. F. Bishop.1 This lady organized an expedition of her own and penetrated many hundred miles, where no European has ever traveled, into the heart of China. Most of her trip was by boat, but much by sedan chair. She assumed the Chinese costume, and prints one hundred and sixty new photographs taken by herself. The hardships she endured were almost unprecedented. Everywhere she encountered bitter prejudice against foreigners, which often broke out into insults and sometimes into attacks, one or two of which almost cost her her life. Her volumes are extremely objective and are en- tirely devoted to her own observations, although she is very familiar with literature upon China. Perhaps the work will be most of all valu- able to those interested in business and traffic, although the anthropol- ogist will be a close second. Her descriptions of foods, costumes, occupations, and mode of life, the shrines, curious buildings, the modes of navigation and bargaining, the crops, etc., leave little to be de- sired.
She holds that the Roman Catholic missionaries, although handi- capped by the exorbitant indemnity for the damages of Sze Chuan in 1895, the claim of the hierarchy to be placed on a level with the mandarins in dignity and reverence, the non-admission of heathen to their church services, and the last rites of the Church, and, like the Prot- estant missionaries, growing unpopular, are nevertheless more appre- ciated for their celibacy, poverty, and asceticism than the Protestants, and declares that every religious teacher save one, who has made his mark in the East, has been an ascetic, because the Orientals always begin to seek righteousness by self-mortification. Lonely men who have left all home ties and devoted themselves for life to the people among whom they live and expect to die are contrasted favorably by the Chinese with most Protestant ministers, who live in comfort in what to them seems luxury in treaty ports with their families, going home every five or seven years, and who always intend to pass their old age and to die at their old homes.2 There are 2,488 Protestant workers, including wives, and 80,632 'The Yang-ze Valley and Beyond. 2 vols., New York, 1900.
740 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE native communicants, but Christianity is generally felt to be a de- structive and socially disintegrating power. Since the war with Japan, however, interest in the " Jesus religion " has increased, and there are very many inquirers. The missionary's knowledge of the Chinese language is generally very imperfect, but the methods of all -the denominations are so similar that the Chinese see little distinction. Their lives are true, patient, and devoted, and are more eloquent than their tongues. The fame of their pay from home without trouble or diminution is admired. Baptism is generally regarded as a complete confession of faith and a break with heathenism. There are many annual relapses, and those who are employed by the missionaries as servants, gate-keepers, etc., are least likely to do so. The native Christian Chinese are more capable of self-help, but it is these who must Christianize China. The obstacles are the natural vanity and contempt of everything foreign as barbarian, the immense influence of Confucius, the difficulty of the alphabet, and the absence as yet of a vocabulary that shall express Christian ideas and not be offensive, universal education in indigenous directions, and the universal an- cestor worship. From a period of suspicion, eight years of African travel have caused Mrs. Bishop to believe in the general efficacy of missions. She was influenced, however, more by the great need and the hopelessness of native systems than by the good missionaries have done, and is convinced that there is no resurrection or power in the natives' faiths, which, noble as they were at the start, have decayed past all hope. In a few esoteric systems there are seekers for better things, those who abstain from current evils and exhort chastity, good works, the conservation of the mental energies by rest and re- flection. The progress heretofore made is almost entirely among the lower classes, and the literati who are the leaders in China, where reverence for letters is phenomenal, have not been reached. The many missionaries always incapacitated or home on a furlough, or the considerable proportion of the total number who must spend a few years in learning the language, cripple the work. Almost none are able to converse with the learned men upon their own level, but many are content with a limited command of the colloquial speech of the coolies. The Chinese language ought to be begun at home under competent native teachers, whether one is going to China to trade or to preach. Any unmarried woman who does not live under her father's roof is exposed not only to suspicion, but to assault upon the street. A uniform, at least for woman missionaries, is recommended that should indicate the class to which she belongs. In no country do violations of etiquette lead so often to dangerous outbreaks as here. One of the most popular dramas at Shanghai a few years ago was a missionary preaching to natives and making all kinds of jeered and satirized blunders. There are no halls, traditions, or opportuni- ties for preaching, but work must be personal and must adopt Chinese methods, conserve carefully every custom not contrary to its spirit, ally itself to everything not evil in Chinese life, and uphold Chinese ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 74 1 nationality, nor seek to perpetuate the differences between Western churches.1 The contrast between China and India is also extreme. The latter is the most heterogeneous of all lands with race strata super-