There is undoubtedly, at the present time, a considerable amount of prejudice against early motherhood. In part, this is due to a failure to realize that women are sexually much more precocious than men, physically as well as psychically (see _ante_ p. 35). The difference is about five years. This difference has been virtually recognized for thousands of years, in the ancient belief that the age of election for procreation is about twenty, or less, for women, but about twenty-five for men; and it has more lately been affirmed by the discovery that, while the male is never capable of generation before thirteen, the female may, in occasional instances, become pregnant at eight. (Some of the recorded examples are quoted by Kisch.) In part, also, there is an objection to the assumption of responsibilities so serious as those of motherhood by a young girl, and there is the very reasonable feeling that the obligations of a permanent marriage tie ought not to be undertaken at an early age. On the other hand, apart from the physical advantages, as regards both mother and infant, on the side of early pregnancies, it is an advantage for the child to have a young mother, who can devote herself sympathetically and unreservedly to its interests, instead of presenting the pathetic spectacle we so often witness in the middle-aged woman who turns to motherhood when her youth and mental flexibility are gone, and her habits and tastes have settled into other grooves; it has sometimes been a great blessing even to the very greatest men, like Goethe, to have had a youthful mother. It would also, in many cases, be a great advantage for the woman herself if she could bring her procreative life to an end well before the age of twenty-five, so that she could then, unhampered by child-bearing and mature in experience, be free to enter on such wider activities in the world as she might be fitted for.
Such an arrangement of the procreative life of women would, obviously, only be a variation, and would probably be unsuited for the majority. Every case must be judged on its own merits. The best age for procreation will probably continue to be regarded as being, for most women, around the age of twenty. But at a time like the present, when there is an unfortunate tendency for motherhood to be unduly delayed, it becomes necessary to insist on the advantages, in many cases, of early motherhood.
There are other conditions favorable or unfavorable to procreation which it is now unnecessary to discuss in detail, since they have already been incidentally dealt with in previous volumes of these _Studies_. There is, for instance, the question of the time of year and the time of the menstrual cycle which may most properly be selected for procreation.[466] The best period is probably that when sexual desire is strongest, which is the period when conception would appear, as a matter of fact, most often to occur. This would be in spring or early summer,[467] and immediately after (or shortly before) the menstrual period. The Chinese have observed that the last day of menstruation and the two following days--corresponding to the period of oestrus--constitute the most favorable time for fecundation, and Bossi, of Genoa, has found that the great majority of successes in both natural and artificial fecundation occur at this period.[468] Soranus, as well as the Talmud, assigned the period about menstruation as the best for impregnation, and Susruta, the Indian physician, said that at this time pregnancy most readily occurs because then the mouth of the womb is open, like the flower of the water-lily to the sunshine.
We have now at last reached the point from which we started, the moment of conception, and the child again lies in its mother's womb. There remains no more to be said. The divine cycle of life is completed.
FOOTNOTES: [421] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 330.
[422] Academy of Medicine of Paris, March 31, 1908.
[423] _The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 405.
[425] Cf. Reibmayr, _Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genics_, Bd. II, p. 31.
[426] "The debt that we owe to those who have gone before us," says Haycraft (_Darwinism and Race Progress_, p. 160), "we can only repay to those who come after us."
[428] Sidney Webb, _Popular Science Monthly_, 1906, p. 526 (previously published in the _London Times_, Oct. 11, 16, 1906). In Ch. IX of the present volume it has already been necessary to discuss the meaning of the term, "morality."
[429] Thus, in Paris, in 1906, in the rich quarters, the birthrate per 1,000 inhabitants was 19.09; in well-to-do quarters, 22.51; and in poor quarters, 29.70. Here we see that, while the birthrate falls and rises with social class, even among the poor and least restrained class the birthrate is still but little above the general average for England, where prevention is widespread, and very considerably lower than the average (now rapidly falling) in Germany. It is evident that even among the poor class there is a process of leveling up to the higher classes in this matter.
[430] I have developed these points more in detail in two articles in the _Independent Review_, November, 1903, and April, 1904. See also, Bushee, "The Declining Birthrate and Its Causes," _Popular Science Monthly_, Aug., 1903.
[431] Francis Place, _Illustrations and Proofs of the Principle of Population_, 1822, p. 165.
[432] See, e.g., a weighty chapter in the _Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_ of Löwenfeld, one of the most judicious authorities on sexual pathology. Twenty-five years ago, as many will remember, the medical student was usually taught that preventive methods of intercourse led to all sorts of serious results. At that time, however, reckless and undesirable methods of prevention seem to have been more prevalent than now.
[433] Michael Ryan, _Philosophy of Marriage_, p. 9. To enable "the conservative power of the Creator" to exert itself on the myriads of germinal human beings secreted during his life-time by even one man, would require a world full of women, while the corresponding problem as regards a woman is altogether too difficult to cope with. The process by which life has been built up, far from being a process of universal conservation, has been a process of stringent selection and vast destruction; the progress effected by civilization merely lies in making this blind process intelligent.
[434] Thus, in Belgium, in 1908 (_Sexual-Probleme_, Feb., 1909, p. 136), a physician (Dr. Mascaux) who had been prominent in promoting a knowledge of preventive methods of conception, was condemned to three months imprisonment for "offense against morality!" In such a case, Dr. Helene Stöcker comments (_Die Neue Generation_, Jan., 1909, p. 7), "morality" is another name for ignorance, timidity, hypocrisy, prudery, coarseness, and lack of conscience. It must be remembered, however, in explanation of this iniquitous judgment, that for some years past the clerical party has been politically predominant in Belgium.
[435] It has been objected that the condom cannot be used by the very poorest, on account of its cost, but Hans Ferdy, in a detailed paper (_Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908), shows that the use of the condom can be brought within the means of the very poorest, if care is taken to preserve it under water when not in use. Nyström (_Sexual Probleme_, Nov., 1908, p. 736) has issued a leaflet for the benefit of his patients and others, recommending the condom, and explaining its use.
[436] Thus, Kisch, in his _Sexual Life of Woman_, after discussing fully the various methods of prevention, decides in favor of the condom. Fürbringer similarly (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, pp. 232 et seq.) concludes that the condom is "relatively the most perfect anti-conceptual remedy." Forel (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, pp. 457 et seq.) also discusses the question at length; any æsthetic objection to the condom, Forel adds (p. 544), is due to the fact that we are not accustomed to it; "eye-glasses are not specially æsthetic, but the poetry of life does not suffer excessively from their use, which, in many cases, cannot be dispensed with."
[438] There are some disputed points in Roman law and practice concerning abortion; they are discussed in Balestrini's valuable book, _Aborto_, pp. 30 et seq.
[439] Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, Bk. XXII, Ch. XIII.
[440] The development of opinion and law concerning abortion has been traced by Eugène Bausset, _L'Avortement Criminel_, Thèse de Paris, 1907. For a summary of the practices of different peoples regarding abortion, see W.G. Sumner, _Folkways_, Ch. VIII.
[441] _Die Neue Generation_, May, 1908, p. 192. It may be added that in England the attachment of any penalty at all to abortion, practiced in the early months of pregnancy (before "quickening" has taken place), is merely a modern innovation.
[442] Even Balestrini, who is opposed to the punishment of abortion, is no advocate of it. "Whenever abortion becomes a social custom," he remarks (op. cit., p. 191), "it is the external manifestation of a people's decadence, and far too deeply rooted to be cured by the mere attempt to suppress the external manifestation."
[443] Cf. Ellen Key, _Century of the Child_, Ch. I. Hirth (_Wege zur Heimat_, p. 526) is likewise opposed to the encouragement of abortion, though he would not actually punish the pregnant woman who induces abortion. I would especially call attention to an able and cogent article by Anna Pappritz ("Die Vernichtung des Keimenden Lebens," _Sexual-Probleme_, July, 1909) who argues that the woman is not the sole guardian of the embryo she bears, and that it is not in the interests of society, nor even in her own interests, that she should be free to destroy it at will. Anna Pappritz admits that the present barbarous laws in regard to abortion must be modified, but maintains that they should not be abolished. She proposes (1) a greatly reduced punishment for abortion; (2) this punishment to be extended to the father, whether married or unmarried (a provision already carried out in Norway, both for abortion and infanticide); (3) permission to the physician to effect abortion when there is good reason to suspect hereditary degeneration, as well as when the woman has been impregnated by force.
[444] Cf. Dr. Max Hirsch, _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan., 1908, p. 23.
[445] Bausset (op. cit.) sets forth various social measures for the care of pregnant and child-bearing women, which would tend to lessen criminal abortion.
[447] F.E. Daniel, President of the State Medical Association of Texas, "Should Insane Criminals or Sexual Perverts be Allowed to Procreate?" _Medico-legal Journal_, Dec., 1893; id., "The Cause and Prevention of Rape," _Texas Medical Journal_, May, 1904.
[448] P. Näcke, "Die Kastration bei gewissen Klassen von Degenerirten als ein Wirksamer Socialer Schutz," _Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie_, Bd. III, 1899, p. 58; id. "Kastration in Gewissen Fällen von Geisteskrankheit," _Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift_, 1905, No. 29.
[449] Angelo Zuccarelli, "Asessualizzazione o sterilizzazione dei Degenerati," _L'Anomalo_, 1898-99, No. 6; id., "Sur la nécessité et sur les Moyens d'empêcher la Réproduction des Hommes les plus Dégénérés," International Congress Criminal Anthropology, Amsterdam, 1901.
[450] Näcke, _Neurologisches Centralblatt_, March 1, 1909. The original account of these operations is reproduced in the _Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift_, No. 2, 1909, with an approving comment by the editor, Dr. Bresler. As regards castration in America, see Flood, "Castration of Idiot Children," _American Journal Psychology_, Jan., 1899; also, _Alienist and Neurologist_, Aug., 1909, p. 348.
[451] It is probable that castration may prove especially advantageous in the case of the feeble-minded. "In Somersetshire," says Tredgold ("The Feeble-Mind as a Social Danger," _Eugenics Review_, July, 1909), "I found that out of a total number of 167 feeble-minded women, nearly two-fifths (61) had given birth to children, for the most part illegitimate. Moreover, it is not uncommon, but, rather the rule, for these poor girls to be admitted into the workhouse maternity wards again and again, and the average number of offspring to each one of them is probably three or four, although even six is not uncommon." In his work on _Mental Deficiency_ (pp. 288-292) the same author shows that propagation by the mentally deficient is, in England, "both a terrible and extensive evil."
[452] This example is brought forward by Ledermann, "Skin Diseases and Marriage," in Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_.
[453] I may here again refer to Lea's instructive _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy_.
[454] In England, 35,000 applicants for admission to the navy are annually rejected, and although the physical requirements for enlistment in the army are nowadays extremely moderate, it is estimated by General Maurice that at least sixty per cent. of recruits and would-be recruits are dismissed as unfit. (See e.g., William Coates, "The Duty of the Medical Profession in the Prevention of National Deterioration," _British Medical Journal_, May 1, 1909.) It can scarcely be claimed that men who are not good enough for the army are good enough for the great task of creating the future race.
[455] The recognition of epilepsy as a bar to procreation is not recent. There is said to be a record in the archives of the town of Luçon in which epilepsy was adjudged to be a valid reason for the cancellation of a betrothal (_British Medical Journal_, Feb. 14, 1903, p. 383).
[456] _British Medical Journal_, April 14, 1906. In California and some other States, it appears that deceit regarding health is a ground for the annulment of marriage.
[457] Sir F. Galton, _Inquiries Into Human Faculty_, Everyman's Library edition, pp. 211 et seq.; cf. Galton's collected _Essays in Eugenics_, recently published by the Eugenics Education Society.
[458] For some account of the methods and results of the work in schools, see Bertram C.A. Windle, "Anthropometric Work in Schools," _Medical Magazine_, Feb., 1894.
[459] The most notable steps in this direction have been taken in Germany. For an account of the experiment at Karlsruhe, see _Die Neue Generation_, Dec., 1908.
[460] Wiethknudsen (as quoted in _Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908, p. 837) speaks strongly, but not too strongly, concerning the folly of any indiscriminate endowment of procreation.
[461] On the scientific side, in addition to the fruitful methods of statistical biometrics, which have already been mentioned, much promise attaches to work along the lines initiated by Mendel; see W. Bateson, _Mendel's Principles of Heredity_, 1909; also, W.H. Lock, _Recent Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity, and Evolution_, and R.C. Punnett, _Mendelism_, 1907 (American edition, with interesting preface by Gaylord Wilshire, from the Socialistic point of view, 1909).
[462] The study of the right conditions for procreation is very ancient. In modern times we find that even the very first French medical book in the vulgar tongue, the _Régime du Corps_, written by Alebrand of Florence (who was physician to the King of France), in 1256, is largely devoted to this matter, concerning which it gives much sound advice. See J.B. Soalhat, _Les Idées de Maistre Alebrand de Florence sur la Puériculture_, Thèse de Paris, 1908.
[464] This has long been the accepted opinion of medical authorities, as may be judged by the statements brought together two centuries ago by Schurig, _Parthenologia_, pp. 22-25.
[465] The statement that, on the average, the best age for procreation in men is before, rather than after, forty, by no means assumes the existence of any "critical" age in men analogous to the menopause in women. This is sometimes asserted, but there is no agreement in regard to it. Restif de la Bretonne (_Monsieur Nicolas_, vol. x, p. 176) said that at the age of forty delicacy of sentiment begins to go. Fürbringer believes (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 222) that there is a decisive turn in a man's life in the sixth decade, or the middle of the fifth, when desire and potency diminish. J.F. Sutherland also states (_Comptes-rendus Congrès International de Médecine_, 1900, Section de Psychiatrie, p. 471) that there is, in men, about the fifty-fifth year, a change analogous to the menopause in women, but only in a certain proportion of men. It would appear that in most men the decline of sexual feeling and potency is very gradual, and at first manifests itself in increased power of control.
[466] See, in vol. i, the study of "The Phenomena of Sexual Periodicity."
[467] Among animals, also, spring litters are often said to be the best.
[468] Bossi's results are summarized in _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Sept., 1891. Alebrand of Florence, the French King's physician in the thirteenth century, also advised intercourse a day after the end of menstruation.
POSTSCRIPT.
"The work that I was born to do is done," a great poet wrote when at last he had completed his task. And although I am not entitled to sing any _Nunc dimittis_, I am well aware that the task that has occupied the best part of my life can have left few years and little strength for any work that comes after. It is more than thirty years ago since the first resolve to write the work now here concluded began to shape itself, still dimly though insistently; the period of study and preparation occupied over fifteen years, ending with the publication of _Man and Woman_, put forward as a prolegomenon to the main work which, in the writing and publication, has occupied the fifteen subsequent years.
It was perhaps fortunate for my peace that I failed at the outset to foresee all the perils that beset my path. I knew indeed that those who investigate severely and intimately any subject which men are accustomed to pass by on the other side lay themselves open to misunderstanding and even obloquy. But I supposed that a secluded student who approached vital social problems with precaution, making no direct appeal to the general public, but only to the public's teachers, and who wrapped up the results of his inquiries in technically written volumes open to few, I supposed that such a student was at all events secure from any gross form of attack on the part of the police or the government under whose protection he imagined that he lived. That proved to be a mistake. When only one volume of these _Studies_ had been written and published in England, a prosecution, instigated by the government, put an end to the sale of that volume in England, and led me to resolve that the subsequent volumes should not be published in my own country. I do not complain. I am grateful for the early and generous sympathy with which my work was received in Germany and the United States, and I recognize that it has had a wider circulation, both in English and the other chief languages of the world, than would have been possible by the modest method of issue which the government of my own country induced me to abandon. Nor has the effort to crush my work resulted in any change in that work by so much as a single word. With help, or without it, I have followed my own path to the end.
For it so happens that I come on both sides of my house from stocks of Englishmen who, nearly three hundred years ago, had encountered just these same difficulties and dangers before. In the seventeenth century, indeed, the battle was around the problem of religion, as to-day it is around the problem of sex. Since I have of late years realized this analogy I have often thought of certain admirable and obscure men who were driven out, robbed, and persecuted, some by the Church because the spirit of Puritanism moved within them, some by the Puritans because they clung to the ideals of the Church, yet both alike quiet and unflinching, both alike fighting for causes of freedom or of order in a field which has now for ever been won. That victory has often seemed of good augury to the perhaps degenerate child of these men who has to-day sought to maintain the causes of freedom and of order in another field.
It sometimes seems, indeed, a hopeless task to move the pressure of inert prejudices which are at no point so obstinate as this of sex. It may help to restore the serenity of our optimism if we would more clearly realize that in a very few generations all these prejudices will have perished and be forgotten. He who follows in the steps of Nature after a law that was not made by man, and is above and beyond man, has time as well as eternity on his side, and can afford to be both patient and fearless. Men die, but the ideas they seek to kill live. Our books may be thrown to the flames, but in the next generation those flames become human souls. The transformation is effected by the doctor in his consulting room, by the teacher in the school, the preacher in the pulpit, the journalist in the press. It is a transformation that is going on, slowly but surely, around us.
I am well aware that many will not feel able to accept the estimate of the sexual situation as here set forth, more especially in the final volume. Some will consider that estimate too conservative, others too revolutionary. For there are always some who passionately seek to hold fast to the past; there are always others who passionately seek to snatch at what they imagine to be the future. But the wise man, standing midway between both parties and sympathizing with each, knows that we are ever in the stage of transition. The present is in every age merely the shifting point at which past and future meet, and we can have no quarrel with either. There can be no world without traditions; neither can there be any life without movement. As Heracleitus knew at the outset of modern philosophy, we cannot bathe twice in the same stream, though, as we know to-day, the stream still flows in an unending circle. There is never a moment when the new dawn is not breaking over the earth, and never a moment when the sunset ceases to die. It is well to greet serenely even the first glimmer of the dawn when we see it, not hastening towards it with undue speed, nor leaving the sunset without gratitude for the dying light that once was dawn.
In the moral world we are ourselves the light-bearers, and the cosmic process is in us made flesh. For a brief space it is granted to us, if we will, to enlighten the darkness that surrounds our path. As in the ancient torch-race, which seemed to Lucretius to be the symbol of all life, we press forward torch in hand along the course. Soon from behind comes the runner who will outpace us. All our skill lies in giving into his hand the living torch, bright and unflickering, as we ourselves disappear in the darkness.
HAVELOCK ELLIS.
INDEX OF AUTHORS.
Abdias Achery Acton Adam, Mme. Adler, Felix Adler, O. Adner Aguilaniedo Alebrand Alexander, Dr. H. Alexandre, Alcide Allée, A. Allen, L.M. Allen, Mary W. Ambrose, St. Amélineau Ammon Amram, D.W. Angela de Fulginio Angus, H.C. Anstie Aquinas Ardu Arendt, Henrietta Aretino Aristotle Aronstam Ascarilla Aschaffenburg Astengo Astor, Mary Astruc Athanasius Athenæus Audry Augagneur Augustine, St. Aurientis Ayala Bacchimont Bachaumont Badley, J.H. Baelz Baer, K.M. Baker, Smith Balestrini Ballantyne, Dr. Ballantyne, Miss H. Balls-Headley Balzac Bangs, L.B. Bartels, Max Basedow Basil, St. Bateson Baumgarten Bausset Bax, Belfort Bazan, Emilia Pardo Beadnell, C.M. Beddoes Bedollière Bell, Sanford Benecke Benedikt Bentzon, Mme. Bérault, G. Berg, Leo Bernard, St. Berry, F. Bertherand Bertillon Besant, Mrs. Beza Bierhoff Birnbaum Bishop, G.P. Bishop, Mrs. Blacker Blake, William Blandford Blaschko Bloch, Iwan Bluhm, Agnes Blumreich Boccaccio Bohier Bois, Jules Boissier, de Sauvages Bollinger Bölsche Bonger Bongi, S. Bonhoeffer Boniface, St. Bonnifield Bonstetten Booth, C. Booth, D.S. Bossi Bouchacourt Bougainville Bourget Bouvier Boyle, F. Brachet Braun, Lily Brénier de Montmorand Brénot, H. Breuer Brieux Brinton Brouardel Brougham Lord Brown, Dr. Charlotte Bruns, Ivo Brynmor-Jones Bucer Budge, A.W. Buffon Bulkley, D. Büller Bumm Bunge Burchard Burdach Buret Burnet Burton, Sir R. Burton, Robert Busch Bushee Butler, G. Butterfield Byers Cabanis Caird, Mona Callari Calvin Calza Canudo Capitaine Caron Carpenter, Edward Casanova Caspari Cataneus Cattell, J. McKeen Caufeynon Cazalis Chaignon Chambers, E.K. Chambers, W.G. Chapman, G. Chapman, J. Cheetham Cheng, Mme. Cheyne Child, May Chotzen, M. Chrysostom Cicero Ciuffo Clapperton, Miss Clappier Clarke Clement of Alexandria Clement E. Cleveland, C. Clouston Coates, W. Codrington, R.W. Coghlan Colombey Coltman Commenge Cook, G.W. Cook, Capt. J. Cooper, A. Cope, E.D. Correa, Roman Coryat Crackanthorpe Cranmer Crawley, A.E. Crocker Curr Gushing, W. Cyples Daniel, F.E. Dareste Dargun Darmesteter, J. Darricarrère Darwin Daudet, A. D'Aulnoy, Mme. Daya, W. Debreyne D'Enjoy, Paul Dens Deodhar, Mrs. Kashibai Descartes Despine Després Dessoir, Max Diaz de Isla Diday Diderot Digby, Sir K. Dill Dluska, Mme. Dodd, Catherine Doléris Donaldson, Principal Donnay Drysdale, C.R. Drysdale, G. Duclaux Dühren, _see_ Bloch, Iwan. Dufour, P. Dukes Dulaure Dulberg Dumas, G. Duncan, Matthews Dunnett Dunning Dupouey Durkheim Durlacher Dyer, I.
Edgar, J. Clifton Egbert, S. Ehrenfels, C. von Elliot, G.F.S. Ellis, Sir A.B. Ellis, Havelock Ellis, William Elmy, Ben., _see_ Ethelmer, Ellis. Enderlin, Max Engelmann Ennius Enzensberger Erb Erhard, F. Escherich Esmein Espy de Metz Ethelmer, Ellis Eulenburg Evans, Mrs. Grainger Farnell Farrer, R.T. Federow Ferdy, H. Féré Ferrand Ferrero, G. Ferriani Fiaschi Fiaux Fielding Finger Fischer, W. Fitchett Flesch, Max Flogel Flood Forberg Forel Fornasari Fothergill, J.M. Fouquet Fournier Fox, G. Fracastorus Fraser, Mrs. Frazer, J.G. Freeman French, H.C. Freud Friedjung Friedländer Fuchs, N. Funk, W. Fürbringer Fürth, Henriette Gache Gaedeken Gallard Galton, Sir F. Gardiner, J.S. Garrison, C.G. Gaultier, J. de Gautier, L. Geary, N. Gennep, A. Van Gérard Gerhard, Adele Gerhard, W. Gerson, A. Gesell Gibb, W.T. Gibbon Giles, A.E. Giles, H.A. Gillard, E. Gillen Gilles de la Tourette Ginnell Giuffrida-Ruggeri Glück, L. Godard Godfrey, J.A. Godwin, W. Goethe Gomperz Goncourt Goodchild, F.M. Goring Gottheil Gottschling Gourmont, Remy de Graef, R. de Graf, A. Grandin Green, C.M. Gregory the Great Gregory of Nazianzen Gregory of Nyssa Gregory of Tours Gregory M. Griesinger Gross Gross, H. Grosse Gulick, L.H. Gurlitt, L. Gury Guttceit Guyau Guyot Gyurkovechky Haddon, A.C. Hagelstange Hale Hall, A. Hall, Stanley Hall, W. Haller Hamilton, A. Hammer Hammond, W.A. Hamon, A. Hard, Hedwig Hardy, Thomas Harris, A. Harrison, F. Hartland, E.S. Harwood, W.L. Haskovec Haslam, J. Hausmeister, P. Havelburg Hawkesworth Haycraft Hayes, P.J. Haynes, E.S.P. Hegar Heidenhain, A. Heidingsfeld Heimann Hellmann Hellpach Helme, T.A. Helvétius Herbert, Auberon Herman, G. Hermant, A. Herodotus Heron Hesiod Hiller Hinton Hirsch, Max Hirschfeld, Magnus Hirth, G. Hobhouse, L.T. Hobson, J.A. Hoffmann, E. Holbach Holder, A.B. Holmes, T. Holt, R.B. Hopkins, Ellice Hort Houzel Howard, G.B. Howitt, A.W. Hudrey-Menos, J. Hughes, C.H. Humboldt, W. Von Hutchinson, Sir J. Hutchinson, Woods Hyde, J.N. Hyrtl Inderwick Ivens, F.
Jacobi, Mary P. Jacobsohn, L. Janet Janke Jastrow, M. Jeannel Jellinek, C. Jentsch, K. Jerome, H. John of Salisbury Jones, Sir W. Jullien Kaan Kalbeck Karin, Karina Keller, G. Kelly, H.A. Kennedy, Helen Key, Ellen Keyes, E.L. Kiernan Kind, A. Kingsley, C. Kirk, E.B. Kisch Klotz Knott, J. Kossmann Kowalewsky, Sophie Krafft-Ebing Krauss, F.S. Krukenberg, Frau Kubary Kullberg Kurella Lacroix, P. Lafargue, Paul La Jeunesse, E. Lallemand Lambkin Lancaster Landor Landret Langsdorf Lapie Laplace Lasco, John à Lauvergne Laycock Lea Lecky Lederer Ledermann Lee, Sidney Lefebvre, A. Legg, J.W. Lemonnier, C. Lenkei Lepage Letourneux Lévy-Bruhl Lewis, Denslow Lewitt Leyboff Lilienthal Lindsey, B.B. Lippert Lischnewska, Maria Liszt Livingstone, W.P. Lock, W.H. Logan Lombroso Löwenfeld Lowndes Lucas, Clement Lucretius Lumholtz Luther Lydston Lyttelton, E.
Maberly, G.C. MacMurchy, Dr. Helen Macvie Madam, M. Maeterlinck Magruder, J. Maillard-Brune Maine Maitland Malthus Mandeville, B. Mannhardt Mantegazza, A. Mantegazza, P. Marçais Marchesini Marcuse, J. Marcuse, M. Margueritte, P. Margueritte, V. Marholm, L. Marro Martindale, Miss Martineau Marx, V. Massalongo Masson Mathews, A. Mathews, R.H. Matignon Maudsley Maurice, General Mayor Mayreder, Rosa McBride, G.H. McCleary, G.F. McIlquham Melancthon Menger, A. von Menjago Mensinga Meredith, G. Mérimée Merrick Metchnikoff Meyer-Benfey, H. Meyer, Bruno Meyer, E.H. Meyrick Michelet Michels, R. Migne Mill, J. Mill, J.S. Millais, J.G. Miller, Noyes Miln, L.J. Milner Milton Möbius Molinari, G. de Moll Mönkemöller Montaigne Montesquieu Montmorency Mookerji Moore, Samson Morasso More, Sir T. Moreau, Christophe Morley, Lord Morley, Margaret Morris, William Morrow Mortimer, G. Moryson, Fynes Mott, F.W. Multatuli Münsterberg Murray, Gilbert Mylott Näcke Naumann, F. Nefzaoui Neisser Neugebauer Newman, G. Newsholme, A. Niessen, Max von Nietzold Nietzsche Niven Noble, M. Noggerath Northcote, Rev. H. Notthaft Noyes, J.H. Nyström Obersteiner Obici Odo of Cluny Oefele Okamura Olberg, Oda Omer, Haleby Ostwald, H. Ott Ovid Owen, R.D.