There was slight asymmetry of the face, due to flattening on the right side; there was no perceptible lack of cranial symmetry.
The right pupil was larger than the left; both movable and perfectly sensitive.
She had hysterical attacks, which became rare before the deed, and were interpreted as a sexual neurosis of puberty. These attacks began with præcordial anxiety and oppression of breathing, and usually ended with a strong desire for movement, to which she yielded with only partial consciousness. She was sometimes for hours in a semi-conscious condition, with extravagant movements, vociferations, senseless talk, etc. Sometimes she exaggerated the attacks; at other times opposed them. From papers that she wrote in prison, it appears that some of these attacks were entirely simulated.
The sexual functions were very irregular; she pretended a want of inclination towards the other sex; the hymen was found lacerated.
She wrote a romance of her life, leaving out everything that might cause disgust, and expressing penitence for the attacks that she confessed to be simulated.
On her death-bed she developed attacks which were certainly not simulated.
She was very excitable, and her life was overspread by nervous tempests which, in spite of herself, she was not able to dominate.
She had little love for her mother, who was avaricious and hard-hearted, and refused her the slightest help.
In one of her papers, dating from the time of her most severe hysterical phenomena, there are religious expressions marked by undoubted sincerity; but when religion did not afford the consolation she expected, her zeal cooled and she went to the opposite extreme.
After a brief mental struggle, she quietly selected the necessary instruments, and studied her criminal design to its smallest details, taking care to avoid discovery. After having formed her plans, she passed the night in quiet sleep, and on the following day committed the deed.
In appearance everything was the work of premeditation and clear consciousness. After the deed she astutely made insinuations against her father, who was entirely innocent of complicity; on her knees, by her mother’s body, she declared her own innocence.
She carried simulation to a fine point of art, displaying during these days an energy and resolution astonishing in a person so weak. It is clear that her deed had for the time raised her above herself.
She had a strange avidity for her mother’s goods. Her great desire was separation from the paternal house and an independent position.
After the deed she said that she was no longer in the hands of Satan.
In prison she lived for more than three years without giving any sign of mental or of physical disease. She bore herself in an unchanging, composed manner, depressed, free from all eccentricity; it was a consolation to her to know that her father and her sister had forgiven her.
At the end of 1886 appeared signs of rapid tuberculosis, to which she succumbed. She died penitent, feeling sure of reconciliation with God.
At the autopsy advanced tuberculosis was found in both lungs, also in the kidneys; this was the cause of death.
The brain could not be examined immediately, and was therefore preserved.
The dura mater, adherent to the cranium externally, was white and lacking in lustre; internally there were bright spots with red maculæ as distinct as in hemorrhagic pachymeningitis.
The brain was soft, humid, and very anæmic. Its weight, after the serum in the cavities had flowed away, was 1164 grammes. The occipital lobes did not entirely cover the cerebellum.
The form of the brain was elliptic. The sulci appeared deep and large. The parietal and temporal lobes were very large, with great development of the convolutions and numerous atypic clefts. The frontal lobe was small compared to the parietal, and its convolutions compressed. The frontal and occipital convolutions were not atypic except by their slight development.
There was scanty development of the frontal and occipital lobes, especially on the left side.
_Conclusions._--We have here a real atrophy of the cerebral cortex, which has the characters of a congenital hereditary degeneration. This atrophy is manifested in the insufficient development of the frontal and, still more, the occipital convolutions, in the smallness of the convolutions, in the incomplete covering of the cerebellum by the cerebrum, and by the number of atypical segmentations in the cerebral cortex, representing (at all events in the opinion of Benedikt) a true aplasia.
These sulci were not the result of superior development; in their neighbourhood there was no increase in the cerebral substance; they are connected with a true atrophy of the cerebral mass. It is impossible to admit the idea of atavistic regression. The connections found between the frontal and inter-parietal fissures cannot be considered as the re-crystallisation of the primitive convolutions and the longitudinal fissures which characterise especially the carnivorous type. All these deviations are found separately in brains which have for the rest a normal structure. That which gives the morbid character is the extraordinary amount of irregularity.
It cannot be denied that the left hemisphere was the most irregular, although there was no cranial asymmetry; facial asymmetry only being recognisable.
This matricide suffered from a grave neurosis at puberty, which left traces up to near the time of the homicide; her judgments of life were affected by a permanent and powerful morbid influence.
We cannot put into exact causal relation the degenerative changes in Maria Köster’s brain, and the perturbations of her psychical activity during life, but we are justified in considering her not completely responsible for all her actions.
APPENDIX E.
_Elmira._ In the Report for 1885 the Secretary of Schools writes:-- Like Practical Morality, English Literature was at the beginning voted a nuisance by the selected members and greeted by them as a fresh infliction for the purpose of making more difficult the earning of marks. Distaste was varied by positive anger; here and there a man suffered his first bewilderment to pass into sullen unwillingness to make an attempt to understand the new study. Several on receiving a play or an essay, opened the book and closed it, doggedly declaring they had not the remotest idea of what was expected of them. Encouraging advice was given in every case of this sort that came to light, and when the pressure of the approaching examination began to act, nearly every man, willing or unwilling, attacked his author and his outlines. This first examination was sufficiently creditable and the historical part at least was well done; but expected signs were not wanting of mental confusion, of indifference, of ineffectual groping after an author’s very palpable meaning, signs which revealed a likely material for mental discipline of the most valuable kind. The only means of removing these difficulties seemed to lie in repeated doses of the same medicine, a conclusion soon warranted by experience. Whatever could be was now done in the way of artificial illumination, and when it appeared that examinations could be and actually were passed by many men in the new subject, confidence began to dawn, and the authors were taken up for the next test with less ugliness and far more of tolerance. In a little while the class gathered momentum and became thoroughly a fact. The change was accompanied by phenomena which are unique from an educational and psychological point of view.
Any one passing along our corridors and galleries might now have witnessed a curious spectacle--that of a student of literature reading by gaslight, not the accustomed novel or light history, but the _Prologue_ of the Canterbury Tales, the tragedy of Hamlet, Emerson’s _May-Day_, or the story of Evangeline; pondering over the weighted pages of Bacon, or keenly trying to read between the lines of Browning’s _Paracelsus_; not rarely with a note-book at hand filled with private comments wrought out against the coming examination. At the examinations, be it remembered, the pupil was required to answer historical questions and, more important than this, to write out extemporaneously an essay or report dealing with some topic, more or less extensive, growing out of the text of his author--which topic was selected not by himself but by the Instructor on the day of the test. If one could realise the mental process of a “tough” from the slums of the metropolis, who, after passing up from class to class of our school, is forced to apply his intellectual faculties for the first time to the careful reading of an essay of Macaulay or a poem of Goldsmith, to enter in short upon the _terra incognita_ of good literature; and if one could then conceive of the state of this same “tough” when, after six months of application with growing susceptibility, he reads up _for pure pleasure_ the history of the Renaissance, searches the pages of Dante for illustrations of the text of Chaucer, ransacks our reference library for specimens of early English;--if one could do this he would comprehend in some measure what has been done by our class in English Literature. Our students, of course, were not wholly without intellectual culture at the start. A few possessed a large amount of it. All had been imbued with some sense of the excellence of culture by the labours of our lecturers in science, philosophy, and history. The discussions in the Practical Morality class had awakened our argumentative powers and developed a sharp relish for ethical questions. We had all had experience, too, in the reading of standard works of fiction and even of books of utility; but the formal study of an English, often of an old English, author, involving an examination, was something wholly new. A direct movement towards pure æsthetic culture was unprecedented for men who generally demanded that books should be amusing, should help to kill time in prison. The first effect was, as already remarked, discouraging. English literature did not immediately “take.” But necessity made it take, and the inevitable love of literature which quickly sprang up did the rest. The essays and poems were conned over and over, and minds heretofore innocent of culture became saturated with the drinkable gold of the classics. A change of feeling came over us; distaste passed into satisfaction as the intrinsic beauty of the masters leavened our minds; indifference gave way to zeal and the study became delightful. An interest feeble at first had grown rapidly. Among the early favourable indications were the requests for information as to the lives of authors and the eager reading of biographies and literary notices. Then arose the desire to read other works of a given author, or to be allowed to spend another month in more minute study of a masterpiece already absorbed in the rough. Notes poured steadily in upon me exhibiting in countless ways the growth of a sentiment which can be termed nothing else than enthusiasm. It was a true _naissance_ or birth of letters. Like the scholars of the Revival period in England, our students, inspired by the simple love of learning, sought culture everywhere. Every available source of enlightenment, every volume of classic English in our reference library, was in its journey from hand to hand of our students a testimony to their enthusiasm. Books which had long remained unused suddenly became very popular, and the delight in reading expanded so as to include not merely literature but other lines as well--ethics, economics, sociology, history, the ancient classics, natural science. Thus on a very small scale, but none the less truly, our revival followed an instinctive development entirely similar to the great Renaissance. As we write the interest is undiminished, but rather grows by its own great energy of motion. The new spirit penetrates the whole life of the institution. In their social intercourse our inmates make regular topics of books and authors; informal debates diversify the Dining Hall exercises, and the instructor is gratuitously made the arbiter of frequent discussions of the “new learning.” Even with incorrigible and indifferent men, who remain uninfected by enthusiasm, the simple strain of inexorable requirement has proved and is proving valuable.
In the Report for 1888 Mr. Z. R. Brockway, the General Superintendent, writes of the literary training of criminals:-- After many years’ experience in efforts to educate young criminals as a means of their reformation I am more and more impressed with its importance. To progress from illiteracy to a good common school education involves such changes, and increase of mind-power, that the prisoner, under similar circumstances to those of his crime, will be likely to differently govern his conduct. Possessing more of intelligence, he instinctively sees the consequences of misconduct more clearly than was possible for him previously, and he will, even without consciously willing to follow good moral conduct for the sake of morality, be more likely to follow it as the path of wisdom. It is, as the rule, idle to expect a change of character without a change of mind; and without new habitudes, which are the result of educational training, there cannot be confidently predicted any permanent change of mind. To advance a young man from the habit of blind obedience to his instincts to habitual conduct, that is self-regulated by more or less of reason, is to insure some change of character, and usually a change for the better. The general library, although of but moderate proportions, contributes not a little to such an educational advancement. The small reference library has, the year past, been well used under pressure of a demand occasioned by the lectures, which are followed with examinations, affecting the date of the prisoner’s release. The books in this library division are mainly of philosophical, mechanical, historical, and biographical character, with a few poetical works from standard authors. The librarian’s distribution receipt book shows that, of these reference library books, there have been issued, by request during the year, 7588 books besides the issue of the general library books, and a weekly issue of 400 magazines and periodicals. The taste for and habit of reading that many have acquired while here, have, as we have reason to believe, followed and remained with them at home after their release. Letters from parents and friends have been received expressing their surprise and gratification that he who previous to his course of training here was restless at home, hurrying to the street after the day’s work and evening meal, now since his return from the reformatory, hurries home from his work, finding for himself, and imparting to others, happiness with his books and quiet domestic enjoyments.
In the same Report Mr. Marvin, the instructor of the class in Practical Ethics, writes:-- The nature of the lessons may be expressed roughly by saying that the moral life has been taken up as the subject of study, just as wealth is taken up in political economy, but no strictly theological questions have been brought in. Such difficulties of thought regarding moral distinctions, motives good and bad, conflicts of conscience, the justice and expediency of laws and governments, as usually arise as people begin to reflect seriously upon the ways of the better social life, have been considered, besides many practical questions regarding self-control, elevation of feeling and thought, and the part of wisdom in every-day affairs. To provide a thread by which the lectures might be connected into a systematic series, they have been thrown into the form of reviews of the views in turn of the various master-minds in the department of ethical knowledge, as to the leading purpose of the wise man. Many quotations from these writers have been given, so that the instruction has afforded some information to the man of a historical or semi-philosophical character aside from its main purpose.
The aim has been not so much to impart a knowledge of stereotyped facts and ideas as to stimulate the minds of the men to obtain for themselves a true conception of the moral order of the world of which they are members, and to form true convictions as to their relations to it. On this account both sides of doubtful questions have been noticed and a decision called for. The leading consideration in the selection of lecture topics from week to week has been the needs and interest already shown. Free discussion has always been allowed, and in some cases it has seemed profitable to devote almost the whole lesson period to it. This method not only holds the interest of the learners, even causing it at times to run quite high, but enables the instructor to carry them along more readily to desired conclusions.
The intelligence of the class is, I think, on the whole best compared to that of an advanced class in a high school, some, of course, rising above this standard, others falling below. In general, as compared with persons of similar age in the better classes outside, they seem to be bright and quick rather than deep or close students. Their remarks in the class frequently bring forth applause or signs of disapproval from their responsive fellows, and occasionally a vein of purer metal and greater depth is touched. Without much liking for books, they seem to take naturally and successfully to the study of human nature. As might be expected, they do not evince much previous reflection upon ethical matters--not as much, I think, comparing them again to those of similar age outside, as upon economic topics.
In what degree the purpose of this course of instruction has been accomplished cannot of course be determined. The examination papers as a whole, taken with the conduct of the men in class and elsewhere in the prison, seem to warrant the belief that considerable moral obscurity has been removed. There is abundant evidence that cant and hypocrisy have less to do with answers in examination than might be supposed, as the most superficial and refractory views are there expressed with almost unbounded confidence in their truth, and are marked the same as more approved views when the question calls for opinions.
In the Report for 1889 Mr. Brockway writes as follows of military drill and of physical training:-- The military drill of the inmates, which commenced a year ago, has been continued until now, and a good degree of perfection has been reached. Ten companies compose a regiment of 803 men. Every day the unemployed inmates are drilled in the forenoon; and all are drilled on Wednesday and Saturday afternoons; there is a dress parade every evening at 4 o’clock, and once a month a competitive examination is held, when all the companies compete for a set of badges to be worn for the month by the commissioned officers of the successful company. Gradually the government of the whole place is becoming a military government, largely by inmate military officers. The military organisation was made possible, indeed made necessary, by the cessation of labour in August 1888, in obedience to the Act of July of that year; but it has been found to be most serviceable in every way. The health and bearing of the men is better, their habitual mental tone is improved, common disciplinary difficulties have been diminished or well-nigh removed, and the military government of a reformatory seems now almost indispensable to satisfactory management. Holding this view, I have, by the authority of the managers, appointed a competent military instructor, Mr. Claude F. Bryan, making thus what at first was but an experiment of military drill and government in a prison a permanent department of training and a distinguishing feature of its disciplinary regime. The regiment is fully officered with line and company officers, a good brass band with drum corps is provided, and is in daily attendance at dress parade. Courts-martial and a weekly officers’ class for the study of tactics are held under the guidance of Colonel Bryan, and, in all things, Upton’s tactics are closely followed.
The building for the scientific physical renovating treatment of a considerable class of the inmates is now nearly completed from funds provided by the legislature of 1888. It is 80 × 140 feet, with an open trussed roof over the whole space. The exercising hall is 80 × 100 feet, and has suspended upon the walls a gallery for pedestrian exercise. A space 40 × 80 feet of the eastern end is devoted to baths, hot, warm, and plunge, and with rooms for massage treatment, etc., etc. Complete scientific apparatus has been purchased, to be erected about the first of December, when, with the enlarged opportunities and improved facilities, as well as with the added experience and study of the physician and instructor, a most interesting, and, it is believed, valuable experiment will be made, intended to demonstrate what possible improvement may be wrought with defectives and dullards, in their mental and moral habitudes, by an improved physical tissue accomplished by wise and thorough physical treatment.
INDEX.
Alcoholism in relation to crime, 97, 144, 281 Animals, crime among, 203 Animals among criminals, love of, 153 Anthropometric identification of criminals, 276 Aram, Eugene, 135, 153 Aristotle, 27 Art, criminal, 190 Aubrey, 250 Barré, 20 Bertillon, A., 276 Bielakoff, 45 Bischoff, 60 Blushing in criminals, 121 Booth, J. W., 141 Borrow, G., 139 Bramwell, 290 Broca, 61 Campi, 86 Capital punishment, 235 Carpenter, Miss, 149, 238 Casanova, 151 Cellini, 187 Cerebral characteristics of criminals, 60 Ceuta, 240 Children, crime among, 210 Chrétien family, the, 96 Clarke, Vans, 59 Colour blindness in criminals, 117 Contagion of crime, 177 Corre, 128, 286 Cranial characteristics of criminals, 49 Crime, the factors of, 24; biological origins of, 203; among children, 210; the increase of, 295; largely a social fact, 297 Criminals, political, 1; by passion, 2; instinctive, 17; occasional, 17; habitual, 19; professional, 21; cranial and cerebral characteristics of, 49; physiognomy of, 63; anomalies of hair among, 72; of body and viscera, 88; tattooing among, 102; their motor activities, 108; their physical sensibilities, 112; their moral insensibility, 124; their intelligence, 133; their vanity, 139; their emotional instability, 142; their religion, 156; their slang, 161; their literature and art, 176; their philosophy, 193; the treatment of, 233; the training of, 260; at Elmira, 264; anthropometric identification of, 276; treatment of occasional, 278; regarded as heroes, 283 Crothers, 99 Crozes, 182 Dalla Porta, 28 Dally, 32 Death, criminals’ ways of meeting, 128, 158 Despine, 33, 126 Desprez, 143 Disvulnerability of criminals, 113 Dixon, Hepworth, 80 Drago, Luis del, 45 Drill, 45 Ear in criminals, the, 65 Epilepsy and crime, 228 Epileptics, 150 Eyesight in criminals, 116 Fallot, 62 Féré, 43, 68, 280 Flesch, 43, 62 Flogging, 274 Frigerio, 67, 70 Frontal crests, 51 Galen, 27 Gall, 29, 61, 124 Galton, 109 Gambling among criminals, 144 General paralysis and crime, 228 Giacomini, 61 Gradenigo, 118 Grohmann, 29 Guerra, 88 Hair among criminals, anomalies of, 72 Hearing of criminals, 117 Heredity in criminals, 90 Hervé, 62 Holmgren, 117 Idiocy and crime, 228 Inebriates, treatment of, 281 Insanity and the criminal, 289 Japan, a prison in, 272 Jury, the, 292 Kocher, 43 Korosi, 96 Krafft-Ebing, 43 Krauss, 43, 134 Laurent, 191 Lauvergne, 31, 159 Lavater, 29 Lebiez, 21, 181 Left-handedness in criminals, 108 Lélut, 32, 60 Liszt, 49 Literature, criminal, 176 Manouvrier, 43, 64 Maternity and crime, 218 Maudsley, 33 Mayhew, 148, 215 Menesclou, 85 Meningitis among criminals, 63 Mingazzini, 52 Moreau, Abbé, 142 Morel, 32 Motor activity of criminals, 108 Muscular anomalies in criminals, 88 Naples, criminality of, 156 Nose in criminals, the, 70 Occipital fossa in criminals, median, 51 Orgy, criminals’ love of, 145 Oxycephaly in criminals, 50 Pallor in criminals, 71 Penta, 41 Philosophy, criminal, 193 Physiognomy of criminals, 78 Pike, L. O., 207 Polemon, 28 Prison, the, 239 Prison inscriptions, 169 Professional criminals, 21, 223 Prostitution and crime, 218 Proverbs about criminals, 26, 78 Quetelet, 24 Ramlot, 115 Recidivism among women, 215 Religion of criminals, 156 Remorse among criminals, 129 Restif de la Bretonne, 74 Richter, 3 Ruscovitch, 200 Savages, crime among, 205 Schneider, Marie, 7 Seneca, 28 Sensibility in criminals, physical, 112 Sentiment among criminals, 152 Sergi, 83 Sexual anomalies in criminals, 89 Sexual differences in criminals, 59, 118-19, 129, 214-21 Sexual perversity among criminals, 144 Smell in criminals, sense of, 118 Socrates, 27 Sollier, Alice, 65 Songs, criminal, 180 Stephen, Justice, 290 _Summary, The_, 183 Sutherland, H., 74 Tarde, 42, 205, 224 Taste in criminals, 119 Tattooing among criminals, 102 Taverni, 300 Tenchini, 51 Thieves’ slang, 61 Thomson, Bruce, 84 Tobacco among criminals, use of, 121 Tommasi, 42 Topinard, 60, 226 Troizki, 45 Turner, Sir W., 209 Vagabondism and crime, 222 Vallès, 254 Van Hamel, 44, 47 Vaso-motor sensibility of criminals, 121 Verlaine, 187 Vice and crime, relations of, 221 Villon, 135, 186 Virchow, 64, 202 Virgilio, 41 Voisin, 32 Warner, F., 301 Wild, Jonathan, 136 Willis, 29 Wilson, G., 34 Wines, F., 255-6 Women, crime among, 214 Zanardelli Code, 36 Zigoma in criminals, 84 Zuccarelli, 41 FOOTNOTES: [1] Sander and Richter, _Die Beziehungen zwischen Geistesstorung una Verbrechen_. See also Lombroso, _L’Uomo Delinquente_, vol. ii., part 3, ch. 1, for many facts and figures concerning criminal insanity.
[2] _Journal of Mental Science_, October 1889. This case may be compared with that of Maria Köster, given in the Appendix D, vi.
[3] Dr. H. Sutherland, _West Riding Asylum Reports_, vol. vi.
[4] Quoted by Despine, _Psychologie Naturelle_.
[5] Appendix by Dr. Paul Lindau to German translation of Lombroso, _Der Verbrecher_.
[7] Lombroso and some other authorities prefer the term “born criminal,” or “congenital criminal” (_reo-nato_). The term “instinctive criminal” seems to be safer, as it is not always possible to estimate the congenital element.
[10] Whoever wishes to study the modern professional criminal and his methods should consult Inspector Byrnes’ _Professional Criminals of America_. It is not a scientific work, and has no reference to anthropologic methods, but it contains a very large and valuable series of photographs of contemporary criminals of note, with a sketch of the career of each.
[11] The classification of criminals adopted in this chapter corresponds substantially with that of Professor Enrico Ferri, by him recognised as provisional. It is also, I find, almost identical with Dr. Colajanni’s.
[12] Seneca also advocated, in a similar way, the removal without vengeance of noxious members of the social body: “At corrigi nequeunt, nihilque in illis lene aut spei bona capax est?--Tollantur e coetu mortalium facturi pejora quæ contingunt et quo uno modo possunt, desinant esse mali; sed hoc sine odio. Nam quis membra sua tunc odit cum abscidit? Non est illa ira, sed misera curatio. Rabidos effigimus canes, et trucem atque immansuetum bovem occidimus, et morbidibus pecoribus, ne gregem polluant, ferrum dimittimus. Nec ira sed ratio est, a sanis inutilia secernere.”--_De Ira_, lib. i., cap. 15.
[13] This is the term now generally used to signify the science of the criminal. It is, however, open to objection. “Criminal Psychology” has been suggested, but is somewhat narrow. Professor Liszt has proposed “Criminal Biology,” and at the last International Congress of Criminal Anthropology, Topinard suggested “Criminology.” “Criminal Anthropology,” however, is so widely used that I have not ventured to introduce any substitute. The reader must remember that criminal anthropology, although related to general anthropology, is not merely a branch of that science.
[14] For a brief summary of its proceedings, see Appendix B.
[15] See Appendix C.
[16] It is worthy of note, as Lombroso remarks, that the first investigator of the criminal in England on modern scientific lines should be a clergyman--the Rev. W. D. Morrison. See his “Reflections on the Theory of Criminality” in the _Journal of Mental Science_, April 1889.
[17] This, and most of the other opinions of Professor Benedikt quoted in this section, are from _Kraniometrie und Kephalometrie_, Vienna, 1889.
[18] The evolutionary tendency of the skull among the higher vertebrates seems to be from the asymmetrical to the symmetrical, while the tendency of the brain is from the symmetrical to the asymmetrical. See M. O. Fraenkel: “Etwas über Schädel-Asymmetrie und Stirnnaht,” _Neurologisches Centralblatt_, August 1, 1888.
[20] For an admirable statement of the present condition of the question see an article by Professor Fallot of Marseilles, “Le Cerveau des Criminels,” in the _Archives de l’Anthropologie Criminelle_, 15th May 1889. Lombroso’s treatment of this question is extremely brief, and not always accurate.
[23] Dr. F. Warner, “Form of Ear as a Sign of Defective Development.” _Lancet_, 15th Feb. 1890.
[24] Schwalbe, who distinguishes five principal forms of the Darwinian tubercle, regards it as normal, and believes that with a little practice it might be discovered in nearly all ears. This may well be, but in its distinctly marked form it can scarcely be called normal.
[25] See his paper, “Lo Scheletro e la forma del naso nei criminali, nei pazzi, negli epilettici e nei cretini,” in the _Archivio di Psichiatria_ for 1888. Fasc. I.--Professor Héger, in a communication to the Société d’Anthropologie of Brussels, remarks that he is able to confirm many of Dr. Ottolenghi’s conclusions with reference to the nasal aperture in the cranium, by examination of the skulls of Belgian murderers.