are extended. But, just because we have set aside the elements, atoms or what not, to which these movements had been affixed, we are no longer dealing with that movement which is the accident of a moving body, with that abstract motion which the mechanician studies and which is nothing, at bottom, but the common measure of concrete movements. How could this abstract motion, which becomes immobility when we alter our point of reference, be the basis of real changes, that is, of changes that are felt? How, composed as it is of a series of instantaneous positions, could it fill a duration of which the parts go over and merge each into the others? Only one hypothesis, then, remains possible; namely, that concrete movement, capable, like consciousness, of prolonging its past into its present, capable, by repeating itself, of engendering sensible quali ties, already possesses something akin to con- ciousness, something akin to sensation. On this theory, it might be this same sensation diluted, spread out over an infinitely larger number of moments, this same sensation quivering, as we have said, like a chrysalis within its envelope. Then a last point would remain to be cleared up: how is the contraction effected, — the con traction no longer of homogeneous movements into distinct qualities, but of changes that are less heterogeneous into changes that are more heterogeneous? But this question is answered by our analysis of concrete perception: this 33° MATTER AND MEMORY perception, the living synthesis of pure per ception and pure memory, necessarily sums up in its apparent simplicity an enormous multi plicity of moments. Between sensible qualities, as regarded in our representation of them, and these same qualities treated as calculable changes, there is therefore only a difference in rhythm of duration, a difference of internal ten sion. Thus, by the idea of tension we have striven to overcome the opposition between quality and quantity, as by the idea of extension that between the inextended and the extended. Exten sion and tension admit of degrees, multiple but always determined. The function of the under standing is to detach from these two genera, extension and tension, their empty container, that is to say, homogeneous space and pure quantity, and thereby to substitute, for supple realities which permit of degrees, rigid abstrac tions born of the needs of action, which can only be taken or left; and to create thus, for reflective thought, dilemmas of which neither alternative is accepted by reality.
3rd. But if we regard in this way the relations of the extended to the inextended, of quality Freedom and to quantity, we shall have less difficulty necessity. jn comprehending the third and last opposition, that of freedom and necessity. Abso lute necessity would be represented by a perfect equivalence of the successive moments of dura tion, each to each. Is it so with the duration SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 33!
of the material universe? Can each moment be mathematically deduced from the preceding moment? We have throughout this work, and for the convenience of study, supposed that it was really so; and such is, in fact, the distance between the rhythm of our duration and that of the flow of things, that the contingency of the course of nature, so profoundly studied in recent philosophy, must, for us, be practically equiva lent to necessity. So let us keep to our hypo thesis, though it might have to be attenuated. Even so, freedom is not in nature an im- perium in imperio. We have said that this nature might be regarded as a neutralized and consequently a latent consciousness, a conscious ness of which the eventual manifestations hold each other reciprocally in check, and annul each other precisely at the moment when they might appear. The first gleams which are thrown upon it by an individual consciousness do not therefore shine on it with an unheralded light: this con sciousness does but remove an obstacle; it extracts from the whole that is real a part that is virtual, chooses and finally disengages that which interests it; and although, by that intelligent choice, it indeed manifests that it owes to spirit its form, it assuredly takes from nature its matter. Moreover, while we watch the birth of that consciousness we are confronted, at the same time, by the apparition of living bodies, capable, even in their simplest forms, of movements spontaneous and unforeseen.
332 MATTER AND MEMORY The progress of living matter consists in a differentiation of function which leads first to the production and then to the increasing com plication of a nervous system capable of canali zing excitations and of organizing actions: the more the higher centres develop, the more numerous become the motor paths among which the same excitation allows the living being to choose, in order that it may act. An ever greater latitude left to movement in space— this indeed is what is seen. What is not seen is the growing and accompanying tension of consciousness in time. Not only, by its memory of former experi ence, does this consciousness retain the past better and better, so as to organize it with the present in a newer and richer decision; but, living with an intenser life, contracting, by its memory of the immediate experience, a growing number of exter nal moments in its present duration, it becomes more capable of creating acts of which the inner indetermination, spread over as large a multi plicity of the moments of matter as you please, will pass the more easily through the meshes of necessity. Thus, whether we consider it in time or in space, freedom always seems to have its roots deep in necessity and to be intimately organized with it. Spirit borrows from matter the perceptions on which it feeds, and restores them to matter in the form of movements which it has stamped with its own freedom.
INDEX Achilles, The, of Zeno, 252.
Action, and pure knowledge, xvii; and pure memory, planes of, 210; and time, 23; necessary, 6; needs of, and bodies, 261; orientation of consciousness towards, 233; plane of, 130, 217; possible, 7; real and virtual, 310; reflex and voluntary, 81; the true point of departure, 67; useful, and pure knowledge, 262; virtual and real, 57.
Actual sensation and pure memory differ in kind, 179.
Adaptation, the general aim of life, 96.
Adler, 143.
Affection, 310; always localized, 61; and perception, difference between, 53; has, from the outset, some extensity, 61; impurity in percep tion, 60; its source, 57.
Affections, i; an invitation to act, 2.
Affective states, vaguely localized, 52.
Amnesia, retrogressive, 224.
Amnesias, systematized, 222.
Aphasia, 231; cases of, 139; con ception of, xv; diagrams of sen sory, 156; sensory, 149; sensory, evidence from certain forms of, 139.
Aphasias, the true, 151.
Apraxia, in.
Amaud, 141, note; 142, note.
Arrow, The, of Zeno, 252.
Association, not the primary fact, 215; of ideas, in what it consists, 103; of ideas, laws of, 212; of perceptions with memory, 106.
Association?, of similarity and con tiguity, 212 ff.
Associationism, error of, 171, 212, 321; intellectualizes ideas too much, 213.
Attention, and recognition, 119; a power of analysis, 124; compared to telegraph-clerk, 123; first, an adaptation of the body, 120; nega tively, inhibition of movement, 120 ' perception and memory.
relations of, 120 ff.; to life, xiv, 226; to life, conditioned by body, 225.
Atom, Faraday's theory of, 265; Kelvin's theory of, 265; modern theories of, 266; properties of, 263.
Auditory, image, 99; memory, 133; memory of words, 161.
Automatic, the, and the voluntary, 145- Automatism, no; wide range of, 99.
Babilee, 149 note.
Bain, 161.
Ball, 201 note, 229 note.
Ballet, 144 note.
Bastian, 121 note, 140, 157 note.
Bateman, ipi note, 141 note.
Becoming, instantaneous section of, 86.
Berkeley, 'and Descartes, ix; and • mechanical philosophers,' ix; and the object, viii; on extensity, 284 ft Berlin, 101 note.
Bernard, 101 note, 109 note, 144 note, 149 note, 153 note, 156 note.
Blindness and deafness, psychic, 1 32; word, 132; psychic, 108, in, 161; psychic, as a disturbance of motor habit, 115; psychic, two kinds of, 115; word, two kinds of, 133., Bodies, distinct, and the needs of life, 261.
Body, a centre of action, 5, 178; a centre of perceptions, 43; and mind, relation of, 295; and soul, relation of, 234; an instrument of action, 299; an instrument of choice, 233; a moving boundary between future and past, 88; a moving, trajectory of, 246; a place of passage, 196; conditions attention to life, 225; conscious ness of, is my present, 177; does not give rise to representation, 5; education of, 139; is that which fixes the mind, 226; known from within as well as from without, i; 334 INDEX provides for the exercise of choice, 5; receives and gives back move ment, 5; structure of, 3; the living, its unique place, i.
Bradley, 120 note.
Brain, and memory, relation between, 119; an instrument of analysis and of choice, 20; a telephonic exchange, 19; cannot beget repre sentation, 8 1; concerned with motor reaction, 8; functions of the, 1 8; injuries to the, effect of, 231; lesions affect movements, not recollections, 88; lesions affect nascent or possible action, 120; lesions and recognition, attentive and inattentive, 132; lesions and the motor diagram, 143; not con cerned with conscious perception, 8.
Broadbent, 101 note, 156.
Brochard, 106 note.
Centre oi representation, the body, 64.
Centres, of force, 265; of perception, 1 60; of verbal images, problem atic, 159.
Cerebral, localization, 131; mechanism, conditions memories, does not ensure their survival, 84; me chanism, links the past with action, 88; vibrations, cannot create images, 10; vibrations, contained in the material world, 10.
Change, and permanence, 260.
Character, a synthesis of past states, 188.
Chemistry, studies bodies rather than matter, 263.
Colours, and rhythm of movement, 268.
Common sense, and matter, x; and object, viii.
Conceptualism and nominalism, criticism of, 202.
Consciousness, actual, deals with useful, rejects the superfluous, 188; and matter, 276 ff.; and the inner history of things, 276; chief office of, 182; different planes of, 318 ff.; double movement in, 216; illusion in regard to, 182; its office in per ception, 69; its part in affection, 2; not the synonym of existence, 181; of another tension than ours, 275; orientation of, towards action, 233; rhythm of, 272; the fringe of, 97; the note of the present, 181.
Conscious perception, a discernment, 31; is our power of choice, 26; materialist's view of, n.
Contiguity and similarity, associa tions of, 212 ff. Continuity, universal, and science, 260. Cowles, 228 note.
Dawn, of human experience, 241.
Deafness, and blindness, psychic, 132; and blindness, word, 132; psychic, does not hinder hearing, 161; word, two kinds of, 133; word, with re tention of acoustic memory, 142.
Descartes, and Berkeley, ix; and the laws of motion, 255.
Diagram, the motor, and brain lesions, 143.
Diagrams, of sensory aphasia, 156.
Dichotomy, The, of Zeno, 251.
Direction, sense of, 115.
Dissociation, is primary, 215 Dodds, in note.
Dogmatism and empiricism, ignore duration, 242.
Drawing, methods of, 116.
Dream, plane of, 129, 218; power of, 94- Dreamer, the, 198.
Dreams, memory in, 200.
Drugs, toxic, effect of, 228.
Dualism, ordinary, 293 ff.; trans cended, 236.
Dunan, 286 note.
Duration, 243; our own, and quality, 271; tension of, determines the measure of liberty, 279; tensions of 275- Duval, 200 note.
Dynamises and mechanists, xvi.
Dyslexic, 101 note.
Ear, the mental, 166.
Egger, 200 note.
Eleatics, paradoxes of, 253.
Empiricism and dogmatism, 239; ignore duration, 242.
Epiphenomenalism, x.
Equilibrium, intellectual, how upset, 225.
Existence, capital problem of, 189; conditions implied in, 189; im plies conscious apprehension and regular connexion, 190; outside of consciousness, 183; real though unperceived, in time and in space, 185.
Exuer, and empty time, 272.
Experience, human, dawn of, 241; the true starting-point, 312.
Extended, the, and the inextended, 3*5.
INDEX 335 Extension, 326; and artificial space, 244; concrete, not bound up with inert space, 244; idea of, 237.
Extensity, and inextension, 235; concrete, and homogeneous space, 278; concrete, not within space, 289; perceived, space conceived, 245; perception of and sight, 286; visual and tactile, 65.
Exteriority, notion of, 42.
Faraday, and centres of force, 31; and the atom, 265.
Force, centres of, 31, 265; in natural science, 257; metaphysical sense of the word, 257.
Fouillee, 112 note.
Freedom and necessity, 279, 325 ff., 330 ff.; degrees of, 296; two op posing points of view concerning, 243- Freud, 157 note. Future, no grasp of without outlook over past, 69.
General idea, essence of the, 2 10.
Generality, 202.
Genus, general idea of, 209.
Goldscheider, 125.
Granville, Mortimer, 101 note.
Grashey, 125, 151 note.
Graves, 153 note.
Habit, 89; interpreted by memory, the study of psychologists, 95.
Habit-memory, 90; acts, not repre sents, the past, 93; advantageous, 94; comparatively rare, 94; in hibits spontaneous memory, 97; sets up a machine, 95.
Habits, amassed in the body, 92; formed in action, influence specu lation, xvi.
Hallucinations, negative, 131; veri dical, 73.
Hamilton, 121 note.
Hearing, intelligent, starts from the idea, 145; mental, 149.
Heterogeneity, qualitative, 76.
Hoffding, 107 note.
Human experience, dawn of, 241.
Idea, and sound, in speech, 154.
Ideas, association of, laws of the, 212.
Ideas, general, 201, 321; always in movement, 210; first experienced, then represented, 208; the essence Of, 2IO.
Idealism, and materialism, 236; and realism, vii; and realism, have a common postulate, 17, 283; English, 282, 287, 289; makes science an accident, 16; the re«f on which it is wrecked, 301.
Idealist, the, starts from perception, 14.
Idealists and realists, xvi.
Image, a privileged, 64; formed in the object, 35; none without an object, 38; present and repre senting, 28; representation and thing, vii; visual or auditory, 99.
Image-centre, a kind of keyboard, 165.
Images, and the body, i; belong to two systems, 12; never any thing but things, 159; not created by cerebral vibrations, ip; preserved for use, 70; recognition of, 86; the delimiting and fixing of, 233.
Imagination, is not memory, 173.
Indetermination, of the will, 35; re quires preservation of images per ceived, 69; the true principle, 21.
Inextended, the, and the extended, 325- Inextension, and extensity, 235.
Insanity, a disturbance of the sensori- motor relations, 228; and present reality, 227.
Intellectual equilibrium, how upset, 225.
Intellectual process, two radically distinct conceptions of, 127.
Interpretation, general problem of, 145 Intuition, actual and remembered, 70; and contact with the real, 241; pure, gives an undivided continu ity, 239.
James, William, 121 note, 286 note, 289 note.
Janet, Paul, 286 note. Janet, Pierre, xv note, 151 note, 229 note, 230 note; study of neuroses, Kant, 289 note; and diversity of phenomena, 244; and speculative reason, 241; and the impersonal understanding, 306; on space and time, 281.
Kantian criticism, ix.
Kay, 102 note, 199 note.
Kelvin, and the atom, 265.
Keyboard, the internal, 165.
Knowledge, relativity of, 241; useful and true, 243.
Kulpe, 125.
Kussmaul, in note, 141, 156 note Lange, 122 note.
INDEX Language, elaborate and primitive, 158; the hearing of an unknown, 134- Laquer, in note. Learning by heart, 89 ft Lehmami, 105 note. Leibniz, on Descartes, 255. Leibnizian monads, 31. Lepine, 200 note. Lesions, brain and the motor diagram, 143- Liberty, measure of determined by tension of duration, 279. Lichtheim, 140, 142 note, 156 note. Light, red, 272. Lissauer, 108, 116, 117. Living matter, progress of, 67. Localization, cerebral, 131. Lotze, 50. Luciani, 162 note.
Magnan, 157 note.
Man of impulse, 198.
Marillier, 120 note, 121 note.
Marc6, 141 note.
Materialism and idealism, 236.
Materialism and spiritualism, 13.
Materialism, essence of, 79; true method of refuting, 80.
Materiality, begets oblivion, 232.
Matter, an aggregate of images, vii; and common sense, vii; and con sciousness, 276 ff.; and percep tion, vii, 76; and perception, differ only in degree, 78; and percep tion, kinship of, 292; and spirit, reciprocal action of, 325; and spirit, transition between, 295; an ever renewed present, 178; artificial division of, 259; coin cides with pure perception, 81; considered before dissociation into existence and appearance, viii; definition of, 8; existence and essence of, xvi; has no occult power, 78, 81; in concrete per ception, 237; living, progress of, 332; metaphysic of, 295; not the substratum of a knowledge, 82; philosophers' conception of, vii; philosophical theory of, 262 ff.; philosophy of, 80; the vehicle of an action, 82.
Maudsley, in, 121 note.
Maury, 200 note.
' Mechanical philosophers ' and Berke ley, ix.
Mechanism of speech, 139.
Mechanists and dynamists, xvi.
Memories, conditioned by cerebral mechanism, 84; supposed destruc tion of, 160; where stored. Fal lacy involved, 191.
Memory, actualized in an image dif fers from pure memory, 181; and brain, 86; and brain, relation be tween, 119; and perception point to action, 302; a principle inde pendent of matter, 81; a privileged problem, xii, 83; auditory, of words, 147; bodily and true, their relation, 197; capital importance of problem of, 80; circles of, 127; contraction of, 129; different planes of, 129; empirical study of, 83; expansion of, 128; function of, in relation to things, 279; gives subjective character to perception, 80; habit, recalls similarity, 201; habit, inhibits spontaneous me mory, 97; how it becomes actual, 162; independent, an appeal to, 90; in dreams, 200; intersection of mind and matter, xii; is spirit, 313; its apparent oneness with the body, 82; its part in percep tion, 70; its twofold operation, 80; loss of, 149; mixed forms of, 103; needs motor aid to become actual, 152; not a manifestation of matter, 313; not an emanation of matter, 237; not destroyed by brain lesions, 132; of a sensation is not a nascent sensation, 174; of words, localization of denied, xv; perception and attention, relations of, 1 20 ff.; phenomena of, 81; primary function of, 303; psycho logical mechanism of, 82; psycho logy of, 295; pure, and action, planes of, 210; pure, and the memory-image, 170; pure, de tached from life, 179; pure, differs in kind from actual sensation, 179; pure, inextensive and powerless, 1 80; pure, interests no part of the body, 179; pure, its reference to spirit, 78; representative, 94 ff.; reverberation, in consciousness, of indetermination, 70; spontaneous, in children and savages, 198; spon taneous, its exaltation and inhibi tion, 98; spontaneous, recalls dif ferences, 201; subjective side "f knowledge, 25; supplanting.per ception, 24; the condensing power of, 76; the two forms of, 89 ff.; to be sought apart from motor adapta tion, 119; true, records every mo ment of duration, 94; two forms, support each other, 98; two kinds of, 195; visual, 108.
Memory-image, and habit memory, INDEX 337 their coalescence, 103; and motor habit, distinct in kind, 103; and pure memory, 170.
Memory-images, and recognition, 92; and the normal consciousness, 96; recognition by, 118; utility deter mines retention of, 97.
Mental and physical, the, not mere duplicates, 300.
Mental functions, utilitarian char acter of, xvii.
Mental hearing, 149.
Mental life, tones of, 221.
Mental states, unconscious, 183.
Metaphysical problems, empirical solution of, 83.
Metaphysics and psychology, relation of, xv.
Mill, J. S., and possible sensation, 306.
Mind, and body, relation of, 295; degree of tension of, 126; normal work of, 225.
Mnemonics, 101.
Moeli, 157 note.
Moment, the present, how consti tuted, 178.
More, Henry, and Descartes, 255.
Moremi de Tours, 228 note.
Motion, and its cause, 257; in mechanics, only an abstraction, 268.
Motor aphasia, does not involve word deafness, 138.
Motor apparatus, in course of con struction, 112.
' Motor diagram,' the, 134, 136, 153; and brain lesions, 143.
Movement, absolutely indivisible, 246 ff.; and its trajectory, 250 ff.; as a change of quality, 258; can only produce movement, 119; essence of, 291; real, akin to con sciousness, 267; real, and ap parent, 258; real, for the physi cist, 254; real, quality rather than quantity, 267; real, the transfer ence of a state, 267; relative, for the mathematician, 254; rhythm of, and colours, 268; rhythm of, and sounds, 269.
Movements, consolidated, difficulty in modifying their order, 112; indivisibles, occupying duration, 268; in space and qualities in consciousness, 267; of imitation, 124; prepare the choice among memory-images, 113; real, not merely change of position, 256.
Moving body, 246 ff.
Miinck, 107 note.
Miinsterberg, 125.
Necessity, and freedom, 325, 330 ff; natural and freedom, 279.
Negative hallucinations, 151.
Nerves, section of, 7.
Nervous system, 3, 17, 227; a con ductor, 40; channel for the trans mission of movements, 81; con structed in view of action, 21.
Newton, 257 note.
Nominalism and conceptualism, criticism of, 202 ff.
Object, the, and common sense, viii. Objects and facts are carved out of reality, 239.
Oblivion and materiality, 232. Oppenheim, 99 note. Order of representation, necessary or contingent, 187. Orientation of consciousness, towards action, 233.
Pain, a local effort, 56; real signifi cance of, 55; the nature of, 311.
Parallelism, x.
Past, an idea, 74; and present, differ in more than degree, 175; essen tially virtual, 173; that which acts no longer, 74; has ceased to be useful, 193; how stored up, 87; survival of, 193; survives in two forms, 87.
Past states, synthesized in char acter, 1 88.
Pathology, evidence from, 133.
Perception, always full of memory images, 170; always occupies some duration, 25; and affection, dif ference between, 53; and matter, vii; and matter, kinship of, 292; and memory, difference between, 71; and memory, differ in kind, 75; and memory-image, not things but a progress, 162; and memory, interpenetrate, 71; and memory point to action, 302; and space, 23; a question addressed to motor activity, 42; attention and memory, relations of, 120 ff.; attentive, a reflexion, 124; centres of, 1 60; directed towards action, 21; displays virtual action, 8; distinct, brought about by two opposite currents, 163; gives us ' thintrs-in-themselves,' 303; im personal, 25; less objective in fact than in theory, 70; limitation of, 34; means indeterminate action, 22; mixed character of, 270; never without affection, 59; of invidual objects, not primary, 205: of matter, definition of, 8; of INDEX INDEX matter, discontinuous, 47; of things, of utilitarian origin, 206, primary, a discernment of the use ful, 206; pure, 26, 64; pure, an intuition of reality, 84; pure, a system of nascent acts, 74; pure, its reference to matter, 77; pure, lowest degree of mind, 297; pure, theory of, 69; reflective, is a circuit, 126; subjectivity of, 75; varies with cerebral vibrations, 12.
Perceptive fibres, centrifugal, 125.
Permanence and change, 260.
Personality, dilatation of, xiv; dis eases of, 229; division of, 229; present undivided in perception, 215.
Philosophy, the method of, 239.
Photography, mental, and subcon- sciousness, 101.
Phrases and words, 148.
Physical and mental, the, not mere duplicates, 300.
Physical exercise, how learnt, 136.
Pillon, 105 note, 107 note.
Place, diversity of, not absolute, 256; every, relative, 256.
Plane, of action, 217; of dream, 218.
Presence and representation, 27.
Present, at once sensation and move ment, 177; definition of, 193; ideal, 176; ideo-motor, 74; is consciousness of the body, 177; is sensori-motor, 177; materiality of our life, 177; real, 176; that which is acting, 74; unique for each moment, 177.
Present moment, how constituted, 178.
Progress of the idea, 154.
Psychasthenic disease, how explained, xv.
Psychic blindness, 108, in; and deafness, 132; as a disturbance of motor habits, 115; does not hinder seeing, 161; two kinds of, 115.
Psychic life, the normal, 219; funda mental law of, 233.
Psychical states, wider than cerebral states, xiii; have a practical end, 320; unconscious, 181.
Psychology and metaphysics, relation of, xv.
Pupin, 200 note.
Pure memory and the memory-image, 170.
Qualities, in consciousness, and move ments in space, 267; of different orders, share in extensity, 282.
Quality, and our own duration, 271; and quantity, 235, 325; sensible, and space, 282; suggests some thing other than sensation, 271. Quantity and quality, 235, 325.
Rabier, 106 note.
Ravaisson, 232 note.
Reaction, immediate and delayed, 22.
Reading, a work of divination, 126; mechanism of, 125.
Realism, atomistic, 283; Kantian, 307; makes perception an accident, 16; ordinary, 287.
Realism and idealism, viii, 12, 73; their common postulate, 283.
Realist, the, starts from the universe, 14.
Realists and idealists, xvi; views of universe, 53.
Reality, every, has a relation with consciousness, 304; what it con sists in for us, 189.