Nay more: not only ought we to regard such disagreement, when it appears, without prejudice; but we ought to expect it; and to consider it, if anything, rather an indication of truth than of error. It is preposterous to look for consistency be- tween absolute moral truth, and the defective characters and usages of our existing state! As already said. Morality pro- fesses to be a code of rules proper for " the guidance of humanity 38 INTRODDCTION.
38 INTRODDCTION.
in its highest conceivable perfection." A universal obedience to its precepts implies an ideal society. How then can it be expected to harmonise with the ideas, and actions, and institu- tions of man as he now is? When we say that mankind are sinful, weak, frail, we simply mean that they do not habitually fulfil the appointed law. Imperfection is merely another word for disobedience. So that congruity between a true theory of duty, and an untrue state of humanity, is an impossibility, a contradiction in the nature of things. Whoever, by way of recommending his scheme of ethics, sets forth its immediate and entire practicability, thereby inevitably proves its false- hood. Eight principles of action become practicable, only as man becomes perfect; or rather, to put the expressions in proper sequence — man becomes perfect, just in so far as he is able to obey them.
A total disagreement may therefore be ' looked for between the doctrines promulgated in the following pages, and the institutions amidst which we live. And the reader wiU be prepared to view such disagreement not only as consistent with their truth, but as adding to its probabihty.
LEMMA II.
LEMMA II.
And yet, unable as the imperfect man may be to fulfil the perfect law, there is no other law for him. One right course only is open; and he must either follow that or take the con- sequences. The conditions of existence will not bend before his perversity; nor relax in consideration of his weakness. Neither, when they are broken, may any exception from penalties be hoped for. " Obey or suffer" are the ever-repeated alternatives. Disobedience is sure to be convicted. And there are no reprieves.
It is indeed the favourite maxim of a certain popular phi- losophy, that " there is no rule without an exception," — a INTRODUCTION. 39 maxim about as respectable as the proverbs along with which it commonly passes current. AppUed to conventional usages — to the tenets of state policy — to social regulations — to the precepts of pocket prudence — to the laws of grammar, of art, of etiquette — or to those common aphorisms which roughly classify the experiences of every-day hfe, it may be true enough; but if affirmed of the essential principles of tilings, of society, of man, it is utterly false.
Nature's rules, on the contrary, have no exceptions. The apparent ones are only apparent; not real. They are indica- tions either that we have not found the true law, or that we have got an imperfect expression of it. Thus, if terrestrial gravitation be defined as " a tendency possessed by all free bodies to descend towards the centre of the earth," you may triumphantly add — " all free bodies except the balloon." But your balloon is no exception. Its ascent is just as much a result of gravitation as the falling of a stone. You have merely proved that the definition does not adequately express the law. Again, to the assertion that exercise increases strength — you may answer, that although generally true, it is not true of invalids, to whom exercise is often detrimental; and that it is only true of the healthy within certain limits. Just so. But such qualifications would have been needless, if the law had been completely stated. Had it been said that — so long as the power of assimilation is sufficient to make good the waste consequent upon exercise, exercise increases strength — no limi- tations could have been discovered. The so-called exceptions are in ourselves, not in nature. They show either that the law eludes our perception, or bafiles our power of expression.
- Eightly understood, the progress from deepest ignorance to highest erJighteimient, is a progress from entire unconscious- ness of law, to the conviction that law is universal and inevit- able. Accumulating knowledge and continual induction are ever restricting the old ideas of special causation within narrower limits. Each new discovery in science — every anomaly solved — strengthens men ia the belief that phenomena 40 INTRODUCTION.
result from general uniform forces. And at length, by dint of constantly-repeated evidence, they begin to perceive that there are no suspensions of these forces even for the avoidance of the most terrific catastrophes. They see that although fleets be sent to the bottom by the resulting storm, yet must atmo- spheric equilibrium be restored. They see that the earth does not cease its attraction, even to save a village from the impend- ing avalanche. They see that, regai-dless of the consequent destraction of a church, or blowing up of a vessel, the electric fluid -ivill still follow " the line of least resistance." They see that chemical afiinity must act, not'withstanding it ends in the burning of a city to ashes — in the submergence of half a country by volcanic disturbance — or in the loss of a hundred tbousand lives by an epidemic. Every increment of knowledge goes to show that constancy is an essential attribute of the Divine rule: an unvaryingness which renders the echpse of a hundred years hence predicable to a moment! And for the end of these unbending ordinances of nature— we find it to be the universal good. To render the world habitable; that is the great object. The minor evils due to this persistency of action are as nothing compared with the infinite benefits secured.
Whether those evils might or might not have been avoided, we need not now consider. It is enough for us to know that con- stancy is the law, and we have no alternative but to assume that law to be the best possible one.
As with the physical, so with the etliical. A belief, as yet fitful and partial, is beginning to spread amongst men, that here also there is an indissoluble bond between cause and con- sequence, an inexorable destiny, a " law which altereth not." Confounded by the multiplied and ever-new aspects of human affairs, it is not perhaps surprising that men should fail duly to recognise the systematic character of the Divine rule. Yet in the moral as in the material world, accumulated evidence is INTRODUCTION. 41 gradually generating the conviction, that events are not at bottom fortuitous; but that they are wrought out in a certain inevitable way by unchanging forces. In all ages there has been some glimmering perception of this truth; and experience is ever giving to that perception increased distinctness. Indeed even now all men do, in one mode or other, testify of such a faith. Every known creed is an assertion of it. What are the moral codes of the Mahometan, the Brahmin, the Buddhist, but so many acknowledgments of the inseparable connection between conduct and its results? Do they not all say you shall not do this, and this, because they will produce evil; and you shall do that and that, because they leill produce good? No matter that their founders erred in the attempt to refer each effect to its special cause, and so botched their systems of morality; not- ^\ithstaiiding this, they evinced the belief that there is an inevitable law of causation in human affairs, which it is for man to learn and conform to. And is not this the doctrine of the highest known religion? Does not Christianity also teach that such and such deeds shall surely end in such and such issues — evil-doing in punishment, well-doing in reward — and that these things are necessarily and indissoluhly connected? We imply such a faith, too, in our every-day conversations; in our maxims and precepts, in our education of children, in our advice to friends. In judging men and things we instinctively refer them to some standard of ascertained principles. We predict good or evil of this or the other scheme, because of its accordance or discordance with certain perceived laws of life. Nay, even the pettifogging red-tapist, with his hand-to- mouth expediency, and professed contempt for " abstract prin- ciples," has really a secret consciousness of some such in- variable sequence of events — does really believe in the sway of that "beneficent necessity" which to a given act attaches a fixed result. For what is the true meaning of his " measures " — his "projects of law"? He does not think it a toss-up whether this, or that, effect will be produced by them. If he did, he would be as ready to adopt one plan as another. Evidently he 42 INTRODUCTION.
sees that there are constant influences at work, which, from each cii'cumstance, or set of ^circumstances, educe an unavoid- able consequence; and that under like conditions like events will again follow.
Surely, then, if all believe in the persistency of these se- condary laws, much more should they believe in the persistency of those primary ones, which underlie human existence, and out of which our every-day truths grow. We cannot deny the root, if we recognise the branches. And if such is the constitution of things, we aie compelled to admit this same " beneficent necessity." There is no alternative. Either society has laws, or it has not. If it has not, there can be no order, no certainty, no system in its phenomena. If it has, then are they like the other laws of the universe — sure, inflexible, ever active, and having no exceptions.
How infinitely important is it, that we should ascertain what these laws are; and having ascertained, implicitly obey them! If they really exist, then only by submission to them can anything permanently succeed. Just in so far as it complies with the principles of moral equilibrium can it stand. Our social edifice may be constructed with all possible labour and ingenuity, and be strongly cramped together with cunningly- devised enactments, but if there be no rectitude in its com- ponent parts — if it is not built on upright principles, it will assuredly tumble to pieces. As well might we seek to light a fire with ice, feed cattle on stones, hang our hats on cobwebs, or otherwise disregard the physical laws of the world, as go con- trary to its equally imperative ethical laws.
Yes, but there are exceptions, say you. We cannot always be strictly guided by abstract principles. Prudential con- siderations must have some weight. It is necessary to use a little policy.
Very specious, no doubt, are your reasons for advocating this INTRODUCTION. 43 or the otlier exception. But if there he any truth in the fore- going argument, no infraction of the law can he made -with impunity. Those cherished schemes by which you propose to attain some desired good by a little politic disobedience, are all delusive. Were any one to tell you that he had invented a mechanical combination, which doubled power without di- minishing velocity, or that he had discovered the quadrature of the circle, or that he knew the receipt for the philosopher's stone, or that he could sell you a child's caul which would save you from drowning, you would reply, that whilst there were laws of matter, such things could not be — that they were proved impossibilities. Exactly so. But rest satisJied that they are not more complete impossibilities than are your proposed achievements, which similarly conflict with the essential laws of life.
It may indeed be difficult for those who have but little faith in the invisible, to follow out a principle unflinchingly, in spite of every threatening evil — to give up their own power of judging what seems best, from the belief that that only is best which is abstractedly right — to say, " although appearances are against it, yet will I obey the law." Nevertheless, this is the true attitude to assume: the conduct which it has been the object of all moral teaching to inculcate; the only conduct which can eventually answer *.
Even supposing for a moment, that a solitary act of dis- obedience may pass without evil results — nay, may bring bene- / ' Coleridge clearly expresses such a belief. He says — " This is indeed the main characteristic of the moral system taught by the Friend throughout; that the distinct foresight of consequences belongs exclusively to the Infinite Wisdom which is one with the Almighty "Will, on which all consequences depend; but that for man to obey the simple unconditional commandment of eschewing every act that impUes a self-contradicton, or, in other words, to produce and maintain the greatest possible harmony in the component impulses and faculties of his nature, involves ■ the effects of prudence." — The Fnemd.
44 INTRODUCTION'.
ficial ones: even supposing this, the wisdom of the act is not thereby proved. For consider the probable effects of a wrong precedent. As Paley truly says, "the bad consequences of actions are twofold, particular and general!' And admitting even that a particular good has been secured, a far greater general evil has been entailed by opening the way to future disobedience. There is no security in this lax creed. One breach of the law leaves a gap for numberless subsequent tres- passes. If the first false step has been taken with seeming impunity, it will inevitably be followed by others. School-boy promises of — " only this once" are not to be believed. Make a hole through a principle to admit a soUtary exception, and, on one pretence or other, so many other exceptions will by and by be thrust through after it, as to render the principle utterly good- for-nothing. In fact, if its consequences are closely traced, dns same plea for licence in special cases turns out to be the source of nearly all the evils that afflict us. Almost every wrong doing is excused by the doer on this ground. He con- fesses his act is at variance with the moral law, which he ad- mits to be, and in some sort beheves to be, the best guide. He tliinks, however, that his interest requires him now and then to make exceptions. All men do this; — and see the result.
But can we ever be sure that an exceptional disobedience tpill bring the anticipated benefits? Whoso would forsake for a time a confessedly-legitimate guide, should remember that he is falling back upon that expediency-hypothesis of which we have already seen the falsity. He is laying claim to a per- fect knowledge of man, of society, of institutions, of events, of all the complex, ever-varying phenomena of human existence; and to a grasp of mind that can infer from these how things -will go in future. In short, he is assuming that same omniscience, which, as we saw, is requisite for the successful INTRODCCTION. 4.'»
can-ying out of such a system. Does he shrink from arrogating as much? Then ohserve his dilemma. He deserts -what he admits to he on the whole a safe rule of conduct, to follow one which is difficult to understand; unsettled in its direc- tions; douhtful in its consequences.
If the foohshness of such conduct needs illustrating hy facts, there are plenty at hand. The constant failure of schemes devised without consulting ethical principles has been already exempUfied (see page 8). Let us now, however, t&ke a few cases specially applying to the present point — cases in which benefit has been sought by going in palpable opposition to those principles — cases in which meu, dissatisfied with the road whose finger-post declares that " Honesty is the best policy," have diverged into the by-ways of injustice, in the hope of more readily attaining their ends.
The enslavement of the neg^'oes serves for a good example. Nothing could have seemed more conclusive than the reason- ing of unscrupulous colonists on tliis matter. Here were rich soils, a splendid chmate, and a large market for the sale of produce. Now, could but a sufiiciency of labourers be im- ported and reduced to servitude, what profit they would bring to their possessors! Maintained at a cheap rate; made to work hard, and to keep long at it, what a surplus would theY not create! Here was a mine of wealth! Well: the planters acted out their thought — did that which, although it might not be just, was apparently "the best policy," so far as they were concerned. Their golden visions have been far from realized however. Slave countries are comparatively poverty-stricken all over the world. Though Jamaica at one time sent us a few overgrown nabobs, yet West-Indian history has been a history of distress and complainings, in spite of continual assistance and artificial advantages. The southern states of America are far behind their northern neighbours in prosperity — are in process of abandoning slavery one after another, in consequence of its ruinous results. Somehow the scheme has not answered as was expected. Though worked in some cases sixteen hours 46 INXnODUCTION.
46 INXnODUCTION.
out of the twenty-foui-; though supported on "a. pint of flour and one salt herring per day;" though kept to his work by whips, yet did not the slave bring to his owner the large profit calculated upon. Indeed it has turned out that, under like cir- cumstances, free labour is much cheaper. And then, besides the disappointment, there came results that were never looked for. Slavery brought in its train the multiplied curses of a diseased social state; a reign of mutual hatred and terror; of universal demoralization; of sin-begotten recklessness; of extravagant expenditure; of bad cultivation, exhausted soils, mortgaged estates, bankruptcy, beggary. After all, the moral law would have been the safest guide.
When Philip of Valois swore the officers of his mint to conceal the debasement of the coinage, and to endeavour to make the merchants believe that the gold and silver pieces were of full value, he thought that although perhaps unprin- cipled, such a measure would be vastly profitable. And so no doubt believed the other kings, who, in the " good old times," almost universally did the like. They overreached themselves, however, as all such schemers do. It is true that their debts were diminished " in proportion to the reduction in the'value of the currency; but their revenues were at the same time re- duced in the like ratio. Moreover, the loss of their reputation for honesty made them afterwards unable to borrow money, except at proportionately high rates of interest, to cover the risk ran by the lender." So that they not only lost on the creditor side of their accounts what they gained on the debtor side, but put themselves at a great disadvantage for the future. After centuries of dearly-bought experience, the practice was reluctantly abandoned, and is now universally exploded as essentially suicidal — -just as suicidal in fact as all other in- fiingements of the rule of right.
Let us remember also, the failure of those attempts to profit at the expense of our American colonies; and the disastrous results to which they led. Our governors thought it would be highly beneficial to the mother country, if the colonies were INTRODUCTION. 47 constrained to become her customers; and in pm'suance of this conclusion, not only prohibited the settlers from purchasing certain goods from any other counti^ than England, but ac- tually denied them the right to make those goods for themselves! As usual the manoeuvre proved worse than abortive. The outlay required to keep open this national truck-shop was greater than the receipts. Nay, indeed, that outlay was wholly thrown away, and worse than thrown away; for it turns out that artificial trades so obtained entail loss upon both parties. Then too came the punishment, the resistance of the settlers, the war of independence, and the hundred and odd millions added to our national burdens!
What an astounding illustration of the defeat of dishonesty by the eternal laws of things we have in the history of the East India Company! Selfish, unscrupulous, worldly-wise in pohcy, and with unlimited force to back it, this oligarchy, year by year, perseveringly carried out its schemes of aggrandisement. It subjugated province upon province; it laid one prince after an- other under tribute; it made exorbitant demands upon adjacent rulers, and construed refusal into a pretext for aggression; it became sole proprietor of the land, claiming nearly one-half the produce as rent; and it entirely monopoUzed commerce: thus uniting in itself the character of conqueror, ruler, landowner, and merchant. With all these resources, what could it be but prosperous? From the spoils of victorious war, the rent of milhons of acres, the tribute of dependent monarchs, the profits of an exclusive trade, what untold wealth must have poured in upon it! what revenues! what a bursting exchequer! Alas! the Company is some 50,000,000/. in debt.
Protected trades, too, have afforded many proofs of the im- policy of injustice. The history of the wool business some centuries ago might be quoted as one; but let us take the more recent case of silk. Under the now happily exploded plea of protection to native industry, the silk manufacturers were freed from aU foreign competition. Their prices were thus artificially raised, and all the nation was compelled to ■i^ INTRODUCTTON'.
buy of them. And so, having a large market and high profits, the)' thought their prosperity ensured. They were doomed to disappointment, however. Instead of a brisk and extensive trade, they obtained a languishing and confined one; and that branch of manufacture, wliich was to have been a pattern of commercial greatness, became a by-word for whining poverty. How utterly absurd, under such a lamentable state of things, must have appeared the proposal to return towards equit- able dealing by lowering the duties! What " impi'ac- ticables " must those, men have been thought, who, because monopoly was unjust, wished to expose the almost ruined manufacturers to the additional difficulty of foreign com- petition! Could anything be more contrary to common sense? Here surely was a case in which " abstract principles " must give way to " policy.'' No: even here, too, obedience to the moral law proved to be the best. EebeUion against it had been punished by accumulated distresses: a partial submission was rewarded by an increase of prosperity. Within fourteen years from the date at which the duties were lowered, the trade had more than doubled itself — had increased more within that period than during the preceding century. And those who, but a short time before, were unable to meet their French compeers in the home-markets, not only began to compete witli them in the marts of other nations, but to send large quantities of goods to France itself.
These are but a few samples from a univei-sal experience. If diligently traced, the results of abandoning the riff/it to pursue the politic will uniformly be found to end thus. Men who are insane enough to think that they may safely violate the fun- damental laws of right conduct, may read in such defeats and disasters their own fate. Let them but inquire, and they will find that each petty evil, each great catastrophe, is in some way or other a sequence of injustice. Monetary panics, South- Sea bubbles, Eailway manias, Irish rebeUions, French revolu- tions,— these, and the miseries flowing from them, are but the cumulative effects of dishonesty. A bitter experiences teaches INTRODUCTION. 49 all men when it is too late, that, alike in national and individual affairs, entire submission is the wisest course. Even Napoleon, after his seeming success, his triumphs, his profound states- manship, his far-seeing "policy," ended in the behef that " There is no power without justice."
Yet this commentary on the moral code — this History as we call it — men for ever read in vain! Poring with micro- scopic eye over the symbols in which it is written, they are heedless of the great facts expressed by them. Instead of collecting evidence bearing upon the all-important question — What are the laws that determine national success or failure, stability or revolution? — they gossip about state intrigues, sieges andbattles, court scandal, the crimes of nobles, the quarrels of parties, the births, deaths, and marriages of kings, and other hke trifles: Minutiee, pettifogging details, the vanity and frippery of bygone times, the mere decorations of the web of existence, they examine, analyze, and learnedly descant upon; yet are blind to those stem reahties which each age shrouds in its superfiffial tissue of events — those terrible truths which glare out upon us from the gloom of the past. From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they diligently gather all the highly-coloured fragments, pounce upon every- thing that is curious and sparkUng, and chuckle like children over their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of wisdom that ramify amidst, this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated, whilst those masses of rich ore, that should have been dug out, and from which golden truths might have been smelted, are left unthought of and unsought.