between the actions winch follow the contact with, soft and hard bodies respectively. Afterwards textures become cog- nizable, and also amounts of tenacity; as illustrated in the act of a spider testing the strength of its web. The pos- session of well-differentiated prehensile organs,, makes per- ceptible the sizes and shapes of the things laid hold of; and tbe conduct is modified accordingly. When the combined appliances of touch and muscular sense are fully developed, as in man,, we find that between the extremes of hardness and softness a great number of gradations can be appreciated; that an immense variety of textures can be known tactually; and that endless objects can be identified by their differ- ences of size and shape, ascertained by the fingers only.
That specialized touch called taste, which may be gene-, rally, though not accurately, described as a sense serving to distinguish soluble matters from insoluble matters, presents a series of gradations of like kind. To the lower families of creatures, which if not without exception aquatic are in all cases surrounded by a liquid that has water for its chief constituent, tne insoluble bodies are one with the inorganic bodies, while the soluble mostly answer to the organic. Matter which permanently continues undissolved in the sea or in a river, is stone or earth; while matter which., though soluble, is found in a solid form, is something that is or has been alive. Hence, to those lowest creatures which feed on any organic substance, the soluble and the insoluble — the things that have taste and the things that are tasteless — stand respectively for food and not-food. From this stage upwards, successive specializations, of which we may presume the first to be in an ability to dis- tinguish organic matter into animal and vegetal, display themselves in the narrowing of the classes of things whicli \ are eaten. Fish that take particular baits, insects and ''quadrupeds that feed on particular plants, illustrate this. Obviously, it is neither needful nor practicable to trace out this progress in detail. It suffices to nofcico that tho higher TTTE C0rjn<]? POTOENCtt AS INCREASING IN SPECIALITY. 3-33 animals perceive an increased number of gustable differ- ences; and that in man the sense of taste, besides serving to identify a great variety of edible substances, aids the chemist and the mineralogist in classifying those inorganic com- pounds which are in any degree soluble.
Smell which, as before suggested (§ 140), has probably a common origin with touch and taste, and is gradually differ- entiated from them, passes through parallel stages of deve- lopment. At first a kind of anticipatory taste, and in common with taste employed to distinguish nutritive from innutritivo matters, it progresses in speciality as the food is specialised; or, to put the facts in logical order— the ability to select special food is usually dependent on the minuteness of the diHereneos which the smelling faculty can appreciate. This is not so throughout, for prey is in many cases recog- nised by oilier means than scent; but it is so with most insects and plant-eating quadrupeds, as well as with a considerable proportion of creatures that arc carnivorous. These gradations in..the olfactory sense, most clearly dis- played in the mammalia, reach in some of those that Imub by scent to a great height. The dog which,, with nose to the ground, traces out his master, shows us that ho can do more than distinguish by scent one class of bodies from all other classes: he can oven distinguish a particular individual belonging to that; class.
The increasing speciality of tho correspondences effected by means of vi&i<p,. as it develop. is still more conspicuous. The lowest form of 'vision appears to be nothing beyoud a sensitiveness to tho proximity of a body win eh iutoreopls tho light. Such, surrounding changes us cause marked ob- scurations arc alouo responded to. When tho sensitive tract on which tho rays are concentrated is such that a part of it can bo stimulated without tho stimulation of tho whole, there- arises an ability to perceive adjacent objects by the light they reflect. Dark and light bodies thus coino to be distin- guished; und we may presume that further progress of like 334 GENEEAL SYNTHESIS.
nature makes appreciable smaller and smaller gradations In the transition from whiteness to blackness: so adding to the number of things discriminated. An ability to recognize differences in the quality of the light probably arises simultaneously. Things that are red, yellow, and blue, work unlike effects on the organism j as well as those that are white and black. Familiar facts clearly show that in the evolution of the visual faculty, the progress is towards a capacity to discriminate a greater variety of intensities of colour, of intermediate tints, and of degrees of light and shade. As there is developed a wider retina, marked differences in the areas occupied by images cast on it become appreciable; and hence arises a possibility of dis- tinguishing differences of bulk in adjacent objects. The approach of a large body changes the state of a greater portion of the retina than the approach of a small one: the result being an appropriate difference of action. And as in the case of amounts of light and qualities of colour, succes- sive advances of this kind bring with them perceptions of smaller unlikenesses. Finally, there is reached the power to recognize not size only but shape, A minuter division of the sensitive tract into separate nervous elements, renders it a fit instrument for this. Employed by an organ- ism of proportionate complexity, an eye of complex structure gives different impressions, both according to the numbers of its component nerve fibres simultaneously affected, and according to the -particular combinations of them simultane- ously affected; and the particular combinations, varying as they do with the forms of the bodies seen, serve as stimuli to the properly-adjusted actions. All which several kinds of visual development, reaching great heights among the superior animals, unite in giving man the power to identify by the eye innumerable different objects; and so to make innumerable special adaptations in his conduct.
Similarly with hearing. At first nothing but a sensitive- ness to concussion^affecting the whole environment, this THE CORRESPONDENCE AS INCREASING IN SPECIALITY. G35 «-onse, wlion localized a,nd developed, becomes a means of distinguishing the strengths of the vibrations. A mode- rate sound near the auditory organ produces a different effect from one causing a violent tremor of the whole surrounding fluid; and slowly as the multiplying apparatus of which the car essentially consists,, is developed,, more numerous degrees of intensity become perceptible. The re- sult we see in animals which listen, or pursue, or seek refuge, according as some neighbouring noiso is faint, or mode- rate, or startling. II.igh.er endowments of the faculty are also accompanied by increased ability to clis- criminato qualities as well as quantities of sounds. Birds which answer one another in the woods and which when cagod may bo taught definite melodies, must recognize many diH'oroneea in. pitch. Parrots, whoso imitations exhibit groat variety in timbrn as well as groat com- pass, show a power to appi'cciato those secondary quali- ties by which tones of the same pitch arc distinguished front ouo another. By most domestic quadrupeds, especi- ally such as answer to their names, marked contrasts of pitch, or of timbre f or of both, arc responded to. And among men the auditory faculty reaohew a development which, besides enabling them to recognise numerous adja- cent creatures, various mechanical operations, countless natural phenomena, by the accompanying sounds, also enables thorn to identify unseen persons by the lominosH, pitch, and Umlro of their voices, and even to perceive the particular states of fooling- in which such persons then are.
Throughout the animal kingdom, thon, the specialisation of the senses measures the specialisation of the cor- respondences between inner and outer relations— is a means to this specialisation. Alike in the differentiation of the senses from one another, in the differentiation, of caclx sense into the divisions which eventually constitute it, and in the differentiations of these into the minute subdivi- sions that make possible the appreciation of minute dis- 336 GENERAL SYNTHESIS.
tlnrtions, we see a succession of subjective modifications fittlno* the organism to respond to a greater and greater number of those objective modifications which. characterize things in its environment.
§ 153. While the developing faculties of touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing, have been making it possible for the organism to respond to smaller differences in the simpler properties of things, there has been growing up a power of responding to those more complex properties of things which are not cognizable by sensation alone. This makes its appearance so gradually, and is so intimately associated with the direct functions of the senses, that it is scarcely possible to treat of the one without in some degree involv- ing the other. Indeed, the boundary line was crossed in the foregoing section, when speaking of visible and of tangible form, and, to a smaller extent, in other cases.
The essential nature of this higher order of specialized correspondences will be more conveniently considered here- after under another head. For the present it will suffice to say, that they are seen wherever Space or Time, or both Space and Time, are involved. Let us look at the matter in the concrete.
Observe, first, that in itself extension of the correspon- dence in Space implies increased speciality of correspon- dence, differing in kind from that above described though inseparable from it in origin. A higher development of the eye, brings simultaneously a greater ability to" identify distant objects and a greater ability to discriminate between the sizes of near objects. And it is clear that these connate abilities to identify objects at a distance and to appreciate differences of apparent magnitude, give together a power of estimating distance: whence arise differences of action, according as the perceived enemies or prey are dangerously near or hopelessly remote; and these differences of action im- ply anew series of -special correspondences. Manir THE CORRESPONDENCE AS INCREASING IN SPECIALITY. 837 fesfcly, also, extension of the correspondence in Time in- volves analogous results. When, instead of recognizing only brief mechanical sequences which occur close to it, the organism recognizes mechanical sequences of longer duration, and afterwards non-mechanical sequences; and when, as a consequence, instead of meeting all sequences involving dangers by some one kind of defensive action, as retreat into its shell, it becomes able to meet them by different actions according to their lengths; the correspondence is, by im- plication, rendered more special.
This being understood, it will be seen that when the speciality of correspondence which exhibits itself in dis- criminating objects from one another, is united with the, speciality of correspondence which exhibits itself in dis- criminating distances in Space or Time, there arises a new and a higher order of special correspondences; or more correctly — tlie previously-specialized correspondences are farther specialized. And when, as during this same pro-, gress, there is developed a power of recognizing direction in space, the speciality is again increased. To another set of distinctions in the environment, there is another set of adjustments in the organism. These general truths will be best elucidated by a few illustrations.
On the approach of any large body, the shrimps left in a tide-pool make convulsive darts which may end in removing each of them to a greater distance from the approaching body, or in bringing it nearer, or in leaving it almost where it was. The random leaps which a flea makes in attempting to escape are of like nature; showing, as they do, no percep- tion of the whereabouts of the pursuer. On the other hand, the movements of a crab or a fish when alarmed, are, like those of all higher creatures, away from the object to be escaped. The particular direction of something in the environment is responded to by appropriately-adjusted motions of tne organism — the correspondence is compara- tively special. When, again, not only the direction but the ggg GENERAL SYNTHESIS.
nature of a neighbouring body is known, either by its colour, or bv the sound it makes, or by both— as exemplified m the deer that gallops away from a creature that barks but not from one that bleats, in the bee that flies towards a flower, in the trout that rises at one object but not at another— there is a still further specialization. And when magnitudes and forms and distances also come to be appreciated, there resuh those more definitely-adjusted actions by which the higher animals elude danger and secure prey— actions such as°those of the chamois springing from crag to crag, of the hawk pouncing on its quarry, of the dog catching the morsel of food thrown to it, of the bird building its nest tnd feeding its young.
Similarly, that increased speciality implied by extension of the correspondence in Time^ when joined with that in- creased speciality implied by a better discrimination of objects, gives origin to a further series of higher specia- lizations. As fast as the sequences which are perceived to differ in length become more numerous; and as fast as there is a multiplication of things distinguished from one another; so fast do the adjustments of the organism to special actions going on around it augment in number geo- metrically. Save in respect to rapid mechanical changes, no correspondences of this order are shown by the lower classes of creatures; and, lacking as they do the ability to estimate time, even the higher mammals supply but few and im- perfect examples of it. The lion that goes to the river-side at dusk to lie in wait for creatures coming to drink, and the house-dog standing outside the door in expectation that some one will presently open it, may be cited as approxi- ', mative instances. But only when we come to the human ; race are correspondences of this degree of speciality ex- fhibited with distinctness and frequency. In preparing his ; weapons against the approaching immigration of certain birds, in putting aside to dry the skins which he preserves I for clothing, in making the fire by which, to cook his fqod, CORRESPONDENCE AS ZNCBEASINfl IN SPECIALITY. 339 the savage adapts Ms conduct to the special changes under- gone by special bodies during definite intervals.
•Eventually tiiere is reached speciality alike in space/ time,, and object — the action of the organism is adjusted to the changes of a particular thing in a particular spot at a particular period. A large proportion of human actions, even among the uncivilized, are of this nature. The going to certain places, at certain seasons, to gather certain natural productions then fit for use; the endeavour to intercept an animal that is making for a retreat, by getting there before it; these, and numerous daily procedures, will serve as examples.
§ 154. Under this, as under previous aspects, an advance of the correspondence is clearly displayed in the course of human progress. The growth of classifications implies the establislnnent of more numerous distinctions among sur- rounding things, and a conforming of the conduct to their respective properties. Agriculture, as it develops, brings knowledge of the serial changes undergone by various plants and animals; while special materials, times, modes, places, are adopted for the production of each. Improve- ments in the Arts have involved an incalculable multiplica- tion of special processes adapted to produce special changes in special objects. Our whole social Hfe, alike in the manu- factory, in the shop, on the highway, in the kitchen, displays throughout, the performance of particular actions towards particular things in particular places at particular times.
Above all in exact science, or rather in the actions guided by exact science, civilization presents us with a new and vast series of correspondences far exceeding in speciality those that came before them. science^ is in reality giiantitatwe^ev^ion, as from that flttg^^^ le^dSeT'^he progress of intelligence has given the ability tqf' say both that such and such things are related in co4 340 GENERAL SYNTHESIS.
existence or sequence, and that the relation between them, involves such and such amounts of space, time, force, tem- perature, &c., &c. It has become possible to predict, not simply that under given conditions two things will always be found together, but to predict how much of the one will be found with so much of the other. It has become possible to predict, not simply that this phenomenon will occur after that, but to predict the exact time at which it will occur, or the exact distance in space at which it will occur, or both. And manifestly, this reduction of objective pheno- mena to definite measures gives to those subjective actions that correspond with them, a degree of precision, a special fitness, greatly beyond that possessed by ordinary actions. There is an, immense contrast in this respect between the doings of the astronomer who, on a certain day, hour, and minute, adjusts his instrument to watch an eclipse-, and those of the farmer who so arranges his work that he may have hands enough for reaping some time in August or1 September. The chemist who calculates how many pounds of quick-lime will be required to decompose and precipitate all the bi-carbonate of lime which the water in a given reservoir contains in a certain per-centa.ge, exhibits an adjustment of inner to outer relations incomparably more specific than does the laundress who softens a tub-ful] of hard water by a handful of soda. In their adaptations to external co-existences and sequences, there is a wide differ- ence between the proceedings of ancient besiegers whose battering rams were indeterminate in their actions, and those of modern artillery-officers, who, by means of a specific quantity of powder, consisting of specific ingredients, in specific proportions, placed in a tube at a specific inclina- tion, send a bomb of specific weight, on to a specific object, and cause it to explode at a specific moment. And when W2 bear in mind that science, considered as the development of qualitative prevision into quantitative prevision, is not only thus distinguished by the relatively-high speciality of THE CORRESPONDENCE AS INCREASING IN SPECIALITY. 3-1 1 the correspondences it achieves, but that,, as contemplated in its own progress, it has been ever becoming more accu- rately quantitative, more special in its previsions; it becomes obvious that even the most transcendent achieve- ments of rationality are but the carrying further that specialization of the correspondences between the organism and its environment, which commences with the evolution of Life in general.
§ 155. This increase in the speciality of the correspond- ence, like its extension in Space and Time, is both in itself a higher life, and contributes to greater length of life. Inability to distinguish between surrounding bodies of different natures, must be attended by fatal errors in the conduct pursued towards them; while, conversely, the greater the power to recognize the multitudinous distinc- tions among such bodies, the greater must be the number of special adjustments that can be made to them, and the more frequent will be the self-preservation. The proposi- tion is in essence a truism. Ifc is almost a truism, too, to say that in proportion to the numerousness of the objects that can be distinguished, and in proportion to the variety ( of co-existences and sequences that can be severally re- ) sponded to, must be the number and rapidity and lieteroy geneity of the changes going on within the organism — r must be the amount of vitality. Indeed, there is no single formula which jsp well expresses the progress of Life, as tins increase in the speciality of the correspondences between mner^and outer relations. For, taking the extreme case, it is" clear that did the actions of an organism accurately respond to all the co-existences and sequences of all things whatever in its environment, its life would be eternal. And it is equally clear that the innumerable internal changes involved in effecting the correspondence with innumerable external relations, would imply the highest conceivable degree 01 vital activity. """^ CHAPTBE TIL THE CORRESPONDENCE AS INCREASING IN GENERALITY.
§ 156. The adjustment.of inner to outer relations pro- gresses in generality at the same time that it progresses in speciality. This statement seems to involve a contradiction, but; the contradiction is verbal only — the generality here referred to being of a different order from that which pre- cedes speciality.
Primitive correspondences are general in the sense that those relations in the environment to which organic rela- tions respond, are everywhere present and continuously present. During a summer's day,, light., heat, and carbonic acid, bathe all the leaves of a plant; and the dependent chemical changes within the plant, go on for as many hours as the surrounding elements and actions remain in the same relation. Hence the correspondence, involving neither any special point in space nor any special moment in time, is of a very general nature. And the like holds with those in- ferior animals to which the environment presents both the disintegrating matter and the integrable matter in diffused , forms. The generalities, however, to which the organism :• responds more and more the higher it advances, are not i those exhibited by the mass of the environing medium, but those exhibited by the individual objects it contains; and generalities of this kind become cognizable only as in- i telligence is developed. Eelations in the organism corre-' THE CORRESPONDENCE AS INCREASING- IN GENERALITY. 34H spending to relations displayed in common by several diffe- rent groups of bodies, but not by other groups, can be established only when the organism has such experiences of various groups of bodies as enable it to distinguish among them. Only when there come to be recognized many ' different classes of objects, can there possibly arise sub- jective generalities parallel to those objective generalities « \vhich bind together classes of objects superficially unlike.
There are indeed generalities which diminish in extensive- ness as the specialities increase in number — generalities which form the material out of which specialities are pro- duced by continual subdivision. The growth of a response to the distinction between liquid matter and solid matter, then to the distinctions between liquid,, inorganic, and organic matters, afterwards to those between liquid, inorganic, vege- tal, and animal matters, implies a correspondence to gene- ralities that are step by step less comprehensive; and each further multiplication of classes supposes a further reduction Ju the number of examples which each sub-class includes. These, however, are generalities which, under their obverse aspect, we considered in the last chapter. For all special correspondences are really the manifestations of general correspondences covering certain groups of cases. The pre- cautionary acts of a barn-door fowl on seeing a hawk hover- ing above, are related to the acts of that hawk in particular, only as being like the acts of hawks in general. The corre- spondence is special, only in the sense of referring to the small class, hawks, instead of to the large class, birds.