THE INTEGRATION OF CORRESPONDENCES, 383 purely instinctive correspondences perfectly exemplify, is partially exemplified by all higher correspondences.
§ 171. Not only to the constituents of immediate percep- tion, to the elements of composite motion, and to the com- bination of the two, does this law apply; it applies also to the highest processes of cognition. The most advanced conceptions of science display it equally with the achieve- ments of manipulatory skill. For making a generalization is,, in reality, integrating the va.rious separate cognitions which the generalization includes — uniting them into a single cognition. After there has been a mental accumu- lation of facts presenting a certain community of nature (remembered first as isolated facts and after further expe- rience colligated as facts having some resemblance), there suddenly,, on the occurrence perhaps of some typical example, arises a cognition of the relation of co-existence or sequence common to the whole group: the particular factsr before loosely aggregated, all at once crystallize into a general fact — are integrated. The mode in which this result is brought about, is the same in these highest cases as in the lowest cases. Continuous repetition of experiences in which any two sensations are always joined, any two mus- cular contractions constantly performed together, or any perception uniformly followed by a special motion, results in the greater or less integration of the component changes; and, similarly, continuous repetition of those more complex experiences which, though superficially unlike, one and all present the same fundamental relation of co-existence or sequence, ultimately establishes a union in thought between the elements of" this relation, and still-multiplying expe- riences go on consolidating the union. It will be obvious without details, that the same thing holds respect- ing the generalization of generalizations. The integration of correspondences is traceable from the simplest np to the most elaborate of the intellectual processes. And in the 884 GENEBAL SYNTHESIS.
last, as in tlie first, tlie effect is to simplify tlie directive and executive actions, and so to make practicable those adjust- ments that would else fail from tlie too slow succession of the processes they involved. For as the perception of a complex object would commonly be useless if the per- cipient had to spell out the constituent sensations; so, any series of compound experiences which, embodied in a gene- ralization, afford valuable guidance, would be of little or no service if every member of the series had to be separately recollected before the guiding cognition could be formed.
§ 172. This gradual union of the elements of any internal change by which the organism adapts its acts to an external co-existence or sequence, has been, in common with previous traits of advancing correspondence, abundantly displayed in the course of human evolution. Progress in integration has been a necessary accompaniment of progress in speciality and complexity, since without it highly special and complex correspondences cannot be achieved; and hence in propor- tion as civilization has displayed the last it must have dis- played the first. The one having been illustrated in detail it is therefore needless to illustrate the other. Similarly, greater length and degree of Life, involved as they are by greater complexity and speciality of correspondence, have accompanied that greater integration which has rendered these possible.
CHAPTER XI.
THE CORRESPONDENCES IN THEIR TOTALITY.
§ 173. Thus then we find illustrated in all ways the truth enunciated at the outset, that the connexions among vital actions directly or indirectly correspond with the con- nexions among actions in the environment. That method by which we sought out the fundamental fact on which to base a Synthetic Psychology, is justified by its results. On comparing the phenomena of mental life with the most nearly allied phenomena — those of bodily life — and inquir- ing what is common to both groups, a generalization was disclosed which proves on examination to express the essen- tial character of all mental actions. Regarded under every variety of aspect, intelligence is found to consist in the establishment of correspondences between relations in the organism andj?elations m the environment; and the entire; development of intelligence may be formulated" as the pro- gress^pf such correspondences in Space, in Time, in Speci- ajit^n.^^^ As hinted more than once, these several modes in which the advance of the correspondence displays itself, are but so many different aspects of one mode. The vast array $f phenomena which, for convenience' sake, we_haye jGcm- siderecl under^d^tinct heads, form in reality one genera],, continuous, and inseparable eypluSon. By going onlimul - taneously, the various orders of progress described have c o rendered one another possible. Every kind of advance lias opened the way for advances of other kinds; and these again have reacted in like manner. All,„ have been fur- thered by each; and each has been furthered by all. Not only is extension of the correspondence in Time, at first rendered possible only by its extension in Space; but ulti- mately, as in the researches of astronomers, the greatest extension of the correspondence in Space is achieved through its extension in Time. Not only does progress of the correspondence in Time and Space involve increase in its speciality; but, eventually, that immense increase in speciality implied by the making of telescopes and chrono- meters, gives a new progress to the correspondence in Time and Space. On the one hand, such greater complexity of the correspondence as is shown by discriminating between objects which have many attributes in common, amounts to advance in its speciality; and, on the other hand, advance in speciality is that without which greater complexity of correspondence cannot be reached. While, by the corre- spondence to higher generalities, the way is opened for more complex and more special correspondences; it is by accumulated experiences of such more complex and more special correspondences that the correspondence to still higher generalities is made possible. At both extremes of the evolution this consensus among the various orders of correspondence is clearly traceable; but the further the development advances the more intimate does the consensus become. If we consider the results of im- proved vision in some inferior species, we s<3e that besides bringing within view a wider region, and so extending the correspondence in Space, and besides giving earlier notice of approaching prey or enemies, and so extending the corre- spondence in Time; it brings a greater power of discrimina- ting among near objects, and so initiates correspondences of higher speciality. Similarly, on observing what takes pla^e in the man of science who adjusts a further inner THE CORRESPONDENCES IN THEIR TOTALITY. 887 relation to some further outer relation — say tlie relation between an electric current and the magnetization of iron — we see that while the discovery is an advance in speci- ality of correspondence, it immediately leads to a variety of advances in all orders of correspondences. It makes possible generalities and specialities of correspondence to the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism. Through the galvanometer it leads to adjustments, both general and special, between inner relations and the outer relations subsisting among electrical phenomena of various orders.. In the same way it does the same thing in respect to an immense range of chemical phenomena. And it similarly brings within reach a vast series of thermal phenomena. Through the agency of the electric telegraph which has also grown out of it, it makes possible hosts of special correspondences between men's actions and the changes occurring at remote points on the Earth's surface j it enables astronomers to ascertain the relative longitudes of observatories with the greatest nicety; and by supplying them with an improved means of registering meridional transits, it gives better data for calculating the distances and motions of the stars, for determining the structure of our Sidereal System, for ascertaining the motion of the Sun through space. In such among other ways has this one advance facilitated other advances of all orders and in all directions; and, in a greater or less degree, the like happens from every advance.
So that from the lowest to the highest forms of life, the j increasing adjustment of inner to outer relations is one \ indivisible progression. Just as out of the homogeneous j tissue with which every organism commences, there arises by continuous differentiation and integration, a congeries qf organs performing separate functions but remaining mutu- ally dependent, or rather growing more mutually dependent; so, the correspondence between the actions going on inside of the organism and those going on outside of it, beginning 388 GENERAL SYNTHESIS.
with some simple homogeneous correspondence, gradually becomes differentiated into various orders of correspon- dences, which, though constantly more and more sub- divided, maintain a reciprocity of aid that grows ever greater. These two progressions are in truth parts of the same progression. Without dwelling on the fact that the primordial tissue displays the several forms of irritability in which the senses originate, and that the organs of sense, like all other organs, arise by differentiation of this primor- dial tissue — without dwelling on the fact that the impres- sions received by these senses form the raw materials of intelligence, which.arises by combination of them and must therefore conform to their law of development — without dwelling on the fact that intelligence advances pari passu with the advance of the nervous system, and that the nervous system has the same law of development as the other sys- tems— without dwelling on these facts, it is sufficiently manifest that as the progress of organization and the pro- gress of correspondence between the organism and its envi- ronment, are but different aspects of the evolution of Life in .general, they cannot fail to harmonize. In this organization of experiences which constitutes evolving Intelligence, there must be that same continuity, that same sub-division of function, that same mutual dependence, and that same ever- advancing consensus, which characterize the physical orga- nization.
§ 174. That Intelligence has neither distinct grades nor is constituted of faculties that are truly independent, but that iteju^e^ are the effects of a complica- *$ ^,?5?^ij.S!!!?^bi?^teps out of the simplest *?' *s?,conc*usio11 equally thrust "upon us when we 9m ^e characteristics of the organism to the charac- teristics of the environment. Every act of Intelligence being, in essence, an^adjustment of inner to outer relations, it results that as, In~The advance of this adjustment, the THE CORRESPONDENCES IN THEIR TOTALITY. 889 outer relations increase in number, in complexity, in hete- rogeneity, by degrees that cannot be marked, there can be no precise demarkations between the successive phases of Intelligence. The space through which the correspondence gradually extends, has no definite boundary up to which a certain order of mind is competent but beyond which another order is required. No exact length of time can be named as the greatest to which the actions can be adjusted by one supposed species of guiding principle. Among the specialities of external phenomena it is impossible to fix on that which can be reached, but not passed, by a particular denomination of mental endowment. Environing objects and environing actions passing as they do into higher and higher complexities by gradations that are insensible, it is impossible to draw among them, a line up to which some alleged kind of intellectual process may go but beyond which it cannot go.
Evidently then, the classifications current in our philoso- phies of the Mind can be but superficially true. Instinct Keason, Perception, Conception, Memory, Imagination, WJJJ^ &c., must be eitEer conventional groupings of the "correspondences, or divisions among the operations which are instrumental in effecting the correspondences. However widely contrasted they may seem, these various modes of Intelligence cannot be anything else than either particular ways in which the adjustment of inner to outer relations is achieved, or particular parts of the process of adjustment.
That there are distinctions among the groups of pheno- mena thus named is doubtless true. But, when^ considered in their essentials, it becomes manifest that some of them merge lotojj^^ into a trank, andjbhat the rest are but the different constituents of which some branch is made up. * § 175. Here a new region of inquiry opens before usl Having found_that all the phenomena oj come within this formula which unites tliem with tliose of J Physiology, we have now to see what distinguishes the one f £roup from the ot¥er." We decided that we should "best I Mnl the requirements of clear exposition by first exhibiting I mental evolution as it may be most generally conceived,, ' and subsequently specializing the conception" (§ 130). One of these steps has been taken in the preceding chapters, which have presented psychological truths under their broadest aspect as biological truths. It remains to take the other step by presenting psychological truths under their differential aspect.
For, as was pointed out in §§ 54, 55, though objective Psychology, as dealing with a certain order of vital activities, comes within Biology^, considered as the entire science of Life, it nevertheless constitutes a sub-science clearly marked off from the rest; just in the same way that Chemistry, although a part of the general science of Mole- cular Physics, is rightly erected into a separate sub-science, because it deals with the re-distributions of heterogeneous molecules instead of the re-distributions of homogeneous molecules.
That which distinguishes the science of psychical life from the science of physical life, we found to be the distinct cognizance which it takes of phenomena outside the organ- ism as well as of phenomena inside the organism. We saw that, passing beyond the question with which FbjSlfis deals — What is the connexion between two phenomena A and B in the environment? and passing beyond the question with which Physiology deals — What is the connexion between two changes a and b in the organism? the question with which Psvjdiologjr deals is — What is the connexion between these two connexions? How is the relation a to 6 in the organism adjusted to the relation A to B in the environment? While admitting, or rather asserting, that Biology at large tacitly recognizes phenomena in the environment as implied by phenomena in the organism, I pointed out that the THE CORRESPONDENCES IN THE IE TOTALITY.
recognition is but tacit,, and that the great mass of biological inquiries are carried on without reference to it; whereas in Psychology the recognition of environing actions and rela- tions is avowed and all-essential — is repeated from moment to moment — is a necessary component of every proposition. The distinction then drawn in the most general way,, has recently been illustrated in various special ways. For while, that we might obtain the most comprehensive conception of psychological phenomena, we returned to the most general point of view, and have throughout the foregoing chapters looked at them simply as vital phenomena coming within the definition of Life as a whole; we have met with abun- dant proof that the truths of Psychology differ from the truths of Physiology by taking for their subject-matter neither the relations of inner acts nor the relations of outer acts, but the adjustments of the inner to the outer. On glancing backf oveFlnese chapters it will be found that in the first two of them, treating of purely physical life as exemplified in pb^nts^and in^animals of the very lowest types, the environ- ment was recognized in the smallest possible degree: only that part of It which touched the organism had to be taken into account. But the moment we rose to a type of creature which adjusts certain organic relations to rela- tions of which both terms are not presented to its surface, we passed into adjustments of the psychological order. As soon as there exists a rudimentary eye capable of re- ceiving an impression from a moving object about to strike the organism, and so rendering it possible for the organism to make some adapted movement, there is shown the dawn of actions we distinguish as intelligent. As soon as the organism, feebly sensitive to a jar or vibration propagated through its medium, contracts itself so as to be in less danger from the adjacent source of disturbance, we percerfe a nascent form of the life classed as psjchicaL That is say, whenever the correspondences exhibit some extensio_, in Space or in Time, some increase of Speciality or Con/ 892 GENERAL SYNTHESIS.
Iplexity, we find we have crossed the boundary between {physical life and psychical life. In so far as it deals at all Hvith the adjustments of inner actions to outer actions, Physiology limits itself to the few in which the outer actions are those of agents in actual contact with the or- - ganism — food, aerated medium, and things which produce certain effects by touch (as insects which fertilize flowers); thus leaving to Psychology all other adjustments of inner to outer actions. So that, practically, the spheres of the two are as clearly divided as the organism is divided from its environment by its limiting membrane.
§ 176. Quite apart, however, from the considerations thus recalled and enforced, we_j^ee_Jhere the need for a more specific and definite interpretation of that mental evolution which jbhe preceding chapters exhibit in its fundamental form. The presentation of Intelligence as an adjustment of inner to outer relations that gradually extends in Space and Time, that becomes increasingly special and complex, and that has its elements ever more precisely co-ordinated and more completely integrated, leaves us with a con- ception which obviously requires further development. ffhe various^ degrees and modes of Intelligence known as Instinct, Memory, Season, Emotion, WiU, and..the rest, ?mustjbejbranslated in terms of this conception. If, as above alleged, the several grades of Mind and its component faculties, are phases of the correspondence and factors in the correspondence, they can be interpreted as such; and to complete the argument it is needful that they should be so interpreted, We have now, then, to enter upon another department of our subject. Closing here the General Synthesis, and car- rying with us the fundamental truth evolved by it, it remains to found upon that fundamental truth a Special Synthesis.
PAET IV.
SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.
CHAPTER I.
THE NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE.* § 177. The two great classes of vital actions called Physio-:' logy and Psychology are broadly distinguished in this, that while the one includes both simultaneous and successive1 changes the Q.ther_includes successive changes only. The-5 phenomena forming the subject-matter of Physiology present themselves as an immense number of different series bound up together. Those forming the subject-matter of Psycho- logy present themselves as but a single series. A glance at the many continuous actions constituting the life of the body at large, shows that they are synchronous — that digestion, circulation, respiration, excretion, secretion, &c., in all their many sub -divisions, are going on at one time in mutual de-.,, pendence. And the briefest introspection makes it clear that| the actions constituting^^^u^t occur, not together, but one! after another. -— —•* jS"o impassable chasm between them is thus constituted however. Even were the highest psychical life absolutely distinguished from physical life in the way alleged, which we * This chapter and all its successors composing Part IV., remain in sub- stance the same as in the original edition. The numerous changes d? expression, omissions of superfluous passages, and occasional additions of explanatory sentences, have been such only as conduce to the clearer pre- sentation of the doctrines set forth — the doctrines themselves being un- changed. I name this for a reason sufficiently indicated in the preface.
896 SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.
stall presently see reason to doubt, it would still be true that psychical life in its lower phases is not thus dis- tinguished: the distinction arises only in the course of vital progression. That gradual differentiation and integration, I seen alike in the evolution of organic structures and in the ' evolution of the correspondence between their actions and actions in the environment, is also seen in the separation of this correspondence into its two great orders. "While through \ it have resulted the various subordinate divisions of the 1 correspondence, through it also has resulted this funda- I mental division. We will look at a few of the facts.
> Passing over the small animals moved by cilia, in which the independence of the many irritations and motions simul- 1 taneously going on is manifest — passing over the Zoophytes, l in which moderate local stimulations produce local contrac- \ tions without affecting the organism as a whole — passing "| over these creatures devoid of nervous systems, let us con- *j. sider what happens when the nervous system has attained ^ some development. In such so-called Badiata as ] the Star-fish, each of the several like divisions composing the 4 body " is connected with a ganglionic centre, that seems to be subservient to the functions of its own division alone, and I to have little communication with, or dependence upon, the ') remainder /'* The result is that what elementary psychical J changes the creature manifests, take place simultaneously in ; different parts of its body: each part separately responding ;; to the impressions made on it. And hence the fact that J for a length of time after being divided from one another, f> the rays severally continue to exhibit their ordinary i actions. In the Articulata, specially fitted by their structure for showing it, this 'dispersion of the psychical life is well brought out by experiment. " The Mantis religiosa j Customarily places itself in a curious position, especially when i 1 ' * Carpenter's Principles of Comparative Physiology. Fourth edition, THE NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE. 397 threatened or attacked, resting upon its two posterior pairs of legs, and elevating its thorax with the anterior pair, which are armed with powerful claws: now if the anterior segment of the thorax, with its attached members, be removed, the posterior part of the body will still remain balanced upon the four legs which belong to it, resisting any attempts to overthrow it, recovering its position when disturbed, and performing the same agitated movements of the wings and elytra as when the unmutilated insect is irritated; on the other hand, the detached portion of the thorax, which con- tains a ganglion, will, when separated froui the head, set in motion its long arms, and impress their hooks on the fingers which hold it. — If the head of a Centipede be cut-off, whilst it is in motion, the body will continue to move onwards by the action of the legs; and the same will take place in the separate parts, if the body be divided into several distinct portions.* * * * If the body be opposed in its progress by an obstacle of not more than half of its own height, it mounts over it, and moves directly onwards, as in its natural state; but if the obstacle be equal to its own height, its pro- gress is arrested, and the cut extremity of the body remains forced up against the opposing substance, the legs still con- tinuing to move."* All which facts imply that even in ani- mals of this comparatively-advanced organization, both orders of vital changes are simultaneous and successive: the diffe- rentiation of the psychical from the physical life is but slight. Even among Vertebrata of high ^ types, this |