The full reply to this objection will be contained by im- plication in a future chapter^ on " The Relations of Co- existence and Non-Coexistence." Here it must suffice to say that the relation of co-existence is distinguished from the relation o,f sequence by the readiness of its terms to follow one another through consciousness in either order, with equal facility and vividness; tjiat ^e consciousness of it arises when, in passing backwards and forwards from one term to the other, the sequences being similarly unresisting cancel one another; and that thus it consists of a duplica- tion in consciousness, made up of -a sequence and its inver- sion. Such being the nature of the relation of co- existence, subjectively considered, the law of intelligence as above formulated applies to it no less than to the relation of sequence. If two phenomena, A and B, habitually co- exist in the environment, then, when the phenomenon A is presented to the senses, the produced state of conscious- ness a/, is immediately succeeded by the state &, represent- ing the phenomenon B. The process of thought does not end here, however: if it did, the external relation wouljl be known as a sequence. But the phenomenon B, in the environment, being as much the antecedent of A as A is of B (neither of them being antecedent or consequent, except 412 SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.
in the order of our experience of them), it results that the state 6 having been induced, the law involves that it shall be followed by the state a. The state a again induces the state 6, and is itself once more re-induced; and so on as long- as the relation remains the object of thought. Let us take a case. If the outlines and colours of a body are pre- sented, the resulting consciousness is instantly followed by the consciousness of something resistant; and conversely, if, in the dark, a body is touched, the resulting conscious- ness is instantly followed by the consciousness of something extended. But in neither case is this all. When, the idea of extension has been suggested that of resistance does not finally disappear; nor when the idea of resistance has been suggested does that of extension finally disappear. Both continue to be thought of, as it would seem, almost simul- taneously. And since the two terms of the relation cannot be known in absolutely the same state of conscious- ness; since further, the persistent consciousness of them cannot be one state of consciousness, which is equivalent to no consciousness; it follows that the apparently-inces- sant presentation of both is really a rapid alternation — an alternation so rapid as to produce the effect of continuity 3 just as the alternating impressions to which the retina is subjected by the pictures on the opposite sides of a revolv- ing thaumatrope, cause a consciousness of the two pictures t as fused into one. Indeed, as this illustration suggests, it is in virtue of the law of intelligence as above formulated, that the relation of co-existence becomes cognizable. For this rapidity with which two states of consciousness answer- ing to two co-existent phenomena, continually reproduce each other, itself exemplifies thejextreme cohesion of those internal states wh]c}^ to extremely-coherent external phenomena. And it is in consequence of this ex- treme cohesion, with the quick alternation involved by it, that the two phenomena are presented apparently together, and the idea of co-existence generated.
THE LAW OF INTELLIGENCE. 413 Where, as in most cases, there are not two co-existent phenomena but a group, this same law implies cohesion of many different states of consciousness, which similarly pro- duce and re-produce one another in all orders; and such an irregularly -varied presentation and re-presentation of com- bined properties is just what we know takes place. Even more apparent becomes the conformity of the facts to the law on remembering, that among the clustered states of consciousness those which answer to invariably-coexistent phenomena, as resistance and extension, continue reproduc- ing each other during the whole perception, forming, as it were, the basis of it; whereas the several other states of consciousness answering to the special qualities of the object (qualities not invariably co-existing with resistance and ex- tension) do not remain thus persistent, but appear^ and disappear, and reappear in consciousness, with, degrees of frequency varying according to the constancy of the answer- ing qualities.
§ 186. A fact seemingly incongruous with the generaliza- ' tion is, that a great proportion of mental changes arise in a way which is in one sense fortuitous. Noises heard through the open window traverse consciousness in a totally-irregu- lar manner. When walking along the streets, the pas- sing people and vehicles produce internal changes of which the succession is indeterminate. External objects, attri- butes, acts, being infinitely varied in their combinations, every observer is subject to changing assemblages of im- pressions between which, no law of connexion can be traced. Hence, to a large part of the successive changes that con- } stitute intelligence, the formula above given must be in- f applicable.
This difficulty will disappear on consideration, Tb»e alleged law of intelligence is that the strength of the tendency which the antecedent of any psychical change has to call up its consequent, is proportionate to the persistence SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.
of the union between the external things they symbolize. Thus far., we have considered this law with reference to those connexions in consciousness which correspond to established or habitual connexions in the environment. Here the connexions in the environment to which the connexions in consciousness correspond, are accidental ones. A fortuitous relation in the environment is paralleled by a fortuitous relation in thought. Two adjacent mental im- pressions answer to two phenomena that are by chance adjacent in Space or Time. Thus far the law manifestly applies as before: the internal order conforms to the external order. But how, it may be asked, can the ten- dency of the antecedent state of consciousness to be followed by the consequent state, be described as proportionate to the persistence of the union between, the external things they symbolize? Very properly. Suppose the relation in the environment to be that between a certain person and some unusual place at which he is met. This -relation may either be considered generally, in connexion with our ex- periences at large; or specially, as a particular experience. Generally considered, the relation is one whose terms have no persistence of union whatever: this person may never have been in that place before or since; and in conformity with this absence of persistence in. the external union, is the absence of any tendency for the idea of the person and the idea of the place to follow one another — at any rate before he was met there. Specially considered, the relation is one that actually occurred; when it occurred, the union between its terms was absolute; and in conformity with this temporarily-absolute union of its terms, was the tem- porarily-absolute tendency of the answering states of con- sciousness to follow one another. As, at the moment it was observed, the adjacent co-existence of the person and the place was as absolute as is the co-existence of extension and resistance in a solid mass; so, at the moment it. was observed, the two states of consciousness produced by the THE LAW 0¥ INTELLIGENCE. 413 person and the place cohered as absolutely as do the con- ceptions of extension and resistance.
Bightly interpreted then,, the law applies as fully to the fortuitous relations presented in any act of percept-ion, as ifc does to the more or less habitual relations which experience establishes among ideas.
§ 187. In the succession of psychical changes there " doubtless occur many combinations which are not easily explicable. Thus, on the case last instanced it may be remarked, that though before a certain person has been met in a certain place, there exists no tendency for the states of consciousness answering to the person and the place to occur together; yet afterwards, the tendency for one of the states to call up the other is often so decided that it shows itself repeatedly. Here then a more per- sistent relation seems to be established between the states of consciousness than exists between the corresponding phenomena. Sometimes, indeed, the exceptional character of the external relation becomes the very cause of tenacity in the internal relation. The more astonishing the 'event — the more utterly it is at variance with the ordinary course of things, the stronger becomes the cohesion be- tween the answering states of consciousness. Whence it would appear that, occasionally, psychical changes conform to a law the reverse of that enunciated. Again, it may be asked how, if the law is as alleged, can con- sciousness ever escape out of certain indissolubly-related states when once it gets into them? If, for instance, the necessary co-existence of extension with a perceived resist- ance, is known through the rapid alternation of the states of consciousness answering to them; and if these states are as inseparable in the organism as the phenomena in the ten- vironment; why should not the two go on reproducing each other for ever?
Fully to answer -these a-nd-^ll like* queries, would be to 416 SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.
include in this chapter an entire system of psychology; for when all peculiarities in the succession of psychical changes are explained, everything is explained. Here, none but general replies can be given. Of these the first is, that, as already said, the law enunciated is the law of intelligence in the abstract; not the law of our intelligence, or of any intelligence with which we are acquainted. It is the law to which psychical changes conform more and more as intelligence becomes higher; but which can be perfectly conformed to only by perfect intelligence. And some of the anomalies pointed out imply nothing beyond imperfec- tion in the conformity. Bat in the majority of cases it will be found that what seem to be non-conformities are really conformities of a complex kind. It must be remembered that the succession of any one state of con- sciousness after any other, is due, not to a single tendency, but to a combination of tendencies. As in the environment each phenomenon stands related to various surrounding phenomena; as the relations in which it stands to these are some of them necessary, some very general, some special, some purely fortuitous; it is a corollary from the alleged law of intelligence, that each state of consciousness has con- nexions, more or less close, with many other states — has a number of other states simultaneously tending, with various degrees of strength, to arise after it. Consequently, the change which actually takes place is the resultant of many tendencies acting together. The next state of consciousness is produced by composition of forces. The force with which this next state cohered to its immediate antecedent, is aided by the forces with which a group of adjacent states cohered to it; and by the union of many small forces, a com- pound tendency may be produced which overcomes some single tendency much stronger than any one or two of its components. A great physical law of the external world supplies us with an analogy. Simple as is the principle that every atom of matter gravitates towards every other THE LAW OF INTELLIGENCE. 417 with a force varying inversely as the square of the distance, yet we see in the still unsolved " problem of three bodies/' how complex becomes the effect when several forces conspire and conflict; and we see how, when a number of bodies are acting, the course that will be pursued by any one of them cannot be calculated. Similarly, though the law of attraction of mental states is simple; yet when the attractions of many mental states come into play — some uniting, some con- flicting— it becomes next DO impossible to predict the result. And just as in the ascent of a balloon we may meet with a phenomenon seemingly quite at variance with the law of gravitation, though really quite in harmony with it; so there may occur mental changes which, while they appear to be directly opposed to the law of psychical succession, are nevertheless fulfilments of it.
Apparent anomalies are thus reconcilable with the con- clusion, that the strength of the tendency which the antece- dent of any psychical change has to be followed by its consequent, is proportionate to the persistence of the union between the external things they symbolize. Such is the a priori necessity; and such is the generalization reached a posteriori. Only in virtue of this law can there be that ad- justment of internal relations to external relations which constitutes life, while it makes possible the continuance of life. And only by supposing such a law to exist can we explain the facts, that relations which are absolute in the environment are absolute in us, that relations which are probable in the environment are probable in us, that re- lations which are fortuitous in the environment are for- tuitous in us.
j E E CHAPTEE III THE GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE.
§ 188. The law enunciated in the foregoing chapter, "beino- the law of Intelligence in the abstract — the law which Intelligence fulfils more and more the further it advances, we have next to examine the modes in which better fulfil- ment of the law is exhibited; and to seek the general cause for this ever increasing fulfilment of it.
Three ways^in which progress shows itself may be dis- f'tmgu^EeSr There is, first — increase in the accuracy with ^ which the inner tendencies are proportioned to the outer persistences. There is, second — increase in the number of cases, unlike as to kind but like as to grade of complexity, in which there are inner tendencies answering to outer per- sistences. And there is, third — increase in the complexity * of the coherent states of consciousness, answering to coherent j complexities in the environment. The organism is placed "tamid innumerable relations of all orders. It begins by imperfectly adjusting its actions to a few of the simplest of these. To adjust its actions more exactly to these few sim- plest, is one form of advance. To adjust its actions to a greater variety of these simplest, is a further form of advance. To adjust its actions to successive grades of the more com- plicated, is yet another form of advance. And to whatever stage it reaches there are still the same three kinds of im- provement open to it — a perfecting of the correspondences already achieved; an achievement of other correspondences THE GBOWTH OF INTELLIGENCE. 419 of the same order -} and an achievement of correspondences of a higher order: all of them implying greater fulfilment of the law of intelligence.
But now, what are the requisites to this progress? Is the genesis of Intelligence explicable on any one general prin- cipie"applying at once to all these modes of advance? Ifso, what is this general principle?
§ 189. In the environment there exist relations of all orders of persistence., from the absolute to the fortuitous. Consequently, in a creature displaying a developed corre- spondence, there must exist all grades ©f strength in the connexions between states of consciousness. As a high, intelligence is only thus possible, it is manifestly a condition to intelligence in general that the antecedents and con- sequents of psychical changes shall admit of all degrees of cohesion. And the question to be answered is: — How are their various degrees of cohesion adjusted?
Concerning their adjustments there are two possible hy- potheses, of which all other hypotheses can be but modi- fications. On the one hand, it may be asserted that the strength of the tendency which each state of consciousness has to follow any other, is fixed beforehand by a Creator — / that there is a "pre-established harmony'' between the! inner and outer relations. On the other hand, it may be| as7ierted"that the strength of the tendency which each state of consciousness, has to follow any other, depends on the frequency with which the two have been connected in ex- perience — that the harmony between the inner and outer relations arises from the fact..that the,putei:,relatign8s^p^)dupe the inner TeStions. Let us briefly examine these two For the first the reason given,, like the reason given* for \ the special-creation hypothesis at large, is that certain of; the phenomena cannot otherwise be explained. This^sjoger^ | natural genesis of the adjustment is alleged because no f 420 SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.
natural genesis has been assigned. The hypothesis has not a single fact to rest on. The facts that may be cited in its support, such as those of reflex action, are simply facts which have not yet been explained; and this alleged explanation of them as due to a pre-established harmony, is simply a disguised mode of shelving them as inexplicable. A further criticism is, that those who espouse this theory dare not apply it beyond a narrow range of cases. It is only . where the connexions between psychical states are absolute — as in the so-called forms of thought and in the congenital instincts — that they fall back on ff pre-established harmony/' .But they should either go the entire length with Leibnitz, or not go with him at all. If they assume that the adjust- ment of inner relations to outer relations has been in some y cases fixed beforehand, they ought in consistency to assume that it has Feela Tnalljjases fixed beforehand. If, answering to eacf aBsoluteiy-pe?sistent connexion of phenomena in the environment, there has been provided some absolutely-per- sistent connexion between states of consciousness; why, where the outer connexion is almost absolutely persistent, and the inner connexion proportionately persistent, must we not suppose a special provision here also? why must we not suppose special provisions for all the infinitely-varied degrees -of persistence? The unqualified adoption of the tlE2i^sis is, however, declined, for obvious reasons. It ^I2]!^LHvo^ve the assertion of a rigorou|., necessity in all *noughtjand action — an assertion which,tEose who favour this hypothesis are, more than any others, disinclined to '* make. It would raise the awkward question why at birth there is not as great a power of thinking, and of thinking correctly, as at any subsequent period. It would imply that men are equally wise concerning things of which they have had no experience, as concerning things of which they have ; had experience. It would altogether negative that advance in enlightenment which characterizes human progression. In short, not only is the hypothesis without foundation THE GftOWTH OF INTELLIGENCE. 421 in our knowledge of mental phenomena; but acceptance of it would necessitate rejection of all such knowledge of mental phenomena as we have acquired.
Contrariwise, for the second hypothesis the evidence is overwhelming. The multitudirious facts commonly cited to illustrate the doctrine of association of ideas, support it.. It is in harmony with the general truth that from the igno- rance of the infant the ascent is by slow steps to the know- ledge of the adult. All theories and all methods of educa- tion take it for granted — are alike based on the belief that the more frequently states of consciousness are made to follow one another in a certain order, the stronger" becomes their tendency to suggest one another in that order. The? sayings — cc Practice makes perfect," and " Habit is second nature/* remind us how long-established and universal is; the conviction that such a law exists. Exemplification of it is furnished by the fact that men who, from being diffe- rently circumstanced, have had different experiences, reach' different generalizations; and by the fact that a wrong; conception will become as firmly established as a right one, if the external relation to which it answers has been as often repeated. It is in harmony with these among other familiar truths; — that phenomena wholly unrelated in our experience, we have no tendency to think of together; that where a certain phenomenon has occurred in many rela- tions, we usually imagine it as recurring in the relation in which it has most frequently occurred; that when we have | witnessed many recurrences of a certain relation we come / to have a strong belief in that relation; that if a relation I has been daily experienced throughout life with scarcely aiij exception, it becomes difficult for us to conceive it as other-j wise — to break the connexion between the states of con-; sciousness representing it; and that where a relation* has been perpetually repeated in our experience with absolute uniformity, we are entirely disabled from conceiving the negation of it.
SPECIAL STNTHESIS.
The only orders of psychical sequences not obviously in- by" this general law, are those classed as r^gjcand Instinctive— those which are apparently established before has been had. B*t it is possible that, rightly Interpreted, the law covers these also. Though reflex and Instinctive sequences are not determined by the experiences of the individual organism manifesting them; yet the ex- periences of the race of organisms forming its ancestry may have determined them. Hereditary transmission applies to psychical peculiarities ^^^^^phy8^". Eecu^aritie-5- While the modified bodily structure produced by new habits of life is bequeathed to future generations, the modified nervous tendencies produced by such new habits of life are also bequeathed; and if the new habits of life become permanent the tendencies become permanent. Let us glance at the facts.
1 Among the families of a civilized society, the changes of and habit from generation to generation and the intermarriage of families having different occupations and habits, greatly confuse the evidence of psychical heref; dity. Bat It needs only to contrast national characters / to see that i^iital^peculiarities cause<^ / ditary. We know that there are warlike, peaceful, nomadic, i maritime, hunting, commercial, races — races that are inde- pendent or slavish, active or slothful; we know that many of these, if not all, have a common origin • and hence it is Inferable that these varieties of disposition, which' have evident relations to modes of life, have been gradually prodaeed In the course of generations. The tendencies to certain combinations of psychical changes have become ., organic, In^domesticated anmals^parallel facts . are familiar. Not only*Selbrms and constitutions, but the j dispositions and instincts of horses, oxen, sheep, pigs, fowls, have become different from those of their wild kindred. The various breeds of dogs exhibit numerou^va^eiles of mental character and faculty permanently established THE GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE. 428 by mode of life; and their several tendencies are spontane- ously manifested. A young pointer will point at a covey the first time he is taken afield. A retriever brought up abroad has been remarked to fulfil his duty without instruc- tion. In such cases there is evidently a bequeathed ten- dency for the psychical changes to take place in a special way.* Even from the conduct of untamed creatures we may gather evidence having like implications. The birds of inhabited countries are far more difficult to ap- proach than those of uninhabited ones. And the manifest inference is, that continued experience of human enmity has wrought organic changes in them— has modified their instincts — has altered the connexions among their psychical states.f Of the two hypotheses, then, the first is supported by no positive evidence whatever, while the second is supported by such positive evidence as we have. That the inner co- •* Had Mr. Darwin's Origin of Species been published before I wrote this paragraph, I should, no doubt, have so qualified my words as to re- cognize " selection," natural or artificial, as a factor. Being written, how- ever, I prefer to let the passage remain with nothing beyond verbal changes, and to make the needful qualification in a note. I do this partly to avoid an inconvenient complication of the statement. But my chief reason, is that, while holding survival of the fittest to be always a co-operating cause, I believe that in cases like these it is not the chief cause. The reasons for this belief are given in the Principles of Biology, § 166.
t I was somewhat surprised when a very competent critic called in ques- tion this modification of instincts in birds; and failing fco remember on what authority I had alleged the fact (which I supposed to be well known) I was unable to justify myself. An American friend, who was present, has since been so good as to forward me a verification, in the form of an incidental remark contained in a letter from Captain William .Reynolds, of the United States Navy. This letter (the original is before me) is written from Brook's Island, described by Captain Eeynolds as a "little midge of sand in the midst of th;e wide Pacific." After giving other particulars of this uninhabited island, he says: — "The biigis won't get out of the way of our people when we land, but show fight and have to be kept off with sticks. During this m$tte, the tropic birds lose their tail feathers, which are plucked from them, as you would pull a blade of grass, while walking over a field." t 424 SPECIAL SYNTHESIS.
hesions of psychical states are pre-adjusted to the outer persistences of the relations symbolized, is a supposition which, if taken literally> involves absurdities so great that none now make it in respect of any cohesions save the con- genital. That it is the true supposition in so far as this limited range of cases is concerned, no evidence can be given; since only to one present at the creation of an organism is knowledge of pre-adjustment possible. So far . as the facts are accessible, the supposition is wholly at variance with them; and it is entertained only where it cannot be brought face to face with the facts. On the other hand, the supposition that the inner cohesions are adjusted to the outer persistences by accumulated ex- perience of those outer persistences, is in harmony with all our actual knowledge of mental phenomena. Though in so far as reflex actions and instincts are concerned, the experience-hypothesis seems insufficient; yet, its seeming insufficiency occurs only where the evidence is beyond our reach. Nay, even here, such few facts as we can get point to the conclusion that automatic psychical connexions result fronvthe registration- of 'experiences continued for number- less generations.
In brief, the case stands thus: — It is agreed that all psychi- cal relations save the absolutely indissoluble are determined by experiences. Their various strengths are admitted, other things equal, to be proportionate to the multiplication of ex- periences. It is an unavoidable corollary that an infinity of experiences wiU produce ¥"psychical relation that is in- dissoluble. Though such infinity of experiences cannot be received by a single individual, yet it may be received by the succession of individuals forming a race. And if there is a transmission of induced tendencies in the nervous system, it is inferable that all psychical relations whatever, from the necessary to the fortuitous, result from the experiences of the corresponding external relations; and are so brought into harmony with them.
THE GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE. 425 Hence the growth of intelligence at large depends on the ' law, that when any two psychical states occur in immediate succession, an effect is produced such that if the first sub- sequently recurs there is a certain tendency for the second to follow it.