aboye-described kind of industrial organ by parallel stages to a higher kind. There is no sudden leap from the house- hold type to the factory type, but a gradual transition. The first step is shown us in those rules of trade-guilds under which, to the members of the family, might be added an apprentice (possibly at first a relation), who, as Brentano says, '' became a member of the family of his master, who instructed him in his trade, and who, Uke a father, had to watch oyer his morals, as well as his work ": practically, an adopted son. This modification haying been initiated, there followed the employing of apprentices who had changed into journeymen. With the deyelopment of this modified household-group, the master grew into a seller of goods made, not by his own family only, but by others; and with the enlargement of his business necessarily ceased to be a worker and became wholly a distributor — a channel through which went out the products, not of a few sons, but of many unrelated artizans. This led the way to esta- blishments in which the employed far outnumbered the SOCIAL STEUCfUBBS. 501 members of the family; until at lengthy with the use of mechanical power^ came the factory: a series o£ stories^ severally containing a crowd of prodacing nnits^ and sending out tributary streams of product that join before reaching the single place of exit. Finally^ in greatly-deyeloped in- dustrial organs, such as those yielding textile fabrics, arise many &ctories clustered in the same town, and others in adjacent towns, to and from which, along branching roads, come the raw material and go the bales of cloth, calico, eta There are instances in which a new industry passes through these stages in the course of a few generations; as happened with the stocking manufacture. In the Midland counties, fifty years ago, the rattle and burr of a solitary stocking-frame came from a road-side cottage every here and there: the single worker made and sold his product. Presently arose work-shops in which several such looms might be heard going: there was the father and his sons, with perhaps a journeyman. At leng^th grew up the large building containing many looms driven by a steam-engine; and at last many such large buildings in the same town.
§ 283. These structural analogies reach a final phase that is still more striking. In both cases there is a contrast between the original mode of development and a substituted later mode.
In the general course of organic evolution from low types to high, there have been passed through by insensible modi- fications all the stages above described; but now, in the individual evolution of an organism of high type, these stages are greatly abridged, and an organ is produced by a comparatively direct process. Thus the liver of a mamma- lian embryo is formed by the accumulation of numerous cells, which presently grow into a mass projecting from the wall of the intestine; while simultaneously there dips down into it a coecum from the intestine. Transforma- tion of this ccecum into the hepatic duct takes place at 502 THE INDUCnOHS OF SOCIOLOGY.
the same time that within the mass of cells there Brise minor ducts, connected with this main duct; aad there are meanwhile going on other changes which, daring^ the evolution of the organ in successively higher typesy came one after another. In the formation of industrial organs the like happens. Now that the factory form of structure is well-established — now that it has become iugrained in the social constitution, we see direct assumptions of it in all industries for which its adaptation has been shown. If at one place the discovery of ore prompts the setting up of iron-works, or at another a fit kind of water facilitates brewing, there is no passing through the early stages of the single worker, the family, the clus- tered families, etc.; but there is a sudden draftiog of materials and men to the spot, and a rapid formation of a producing structure on the advanced type. Nay, not the single large establishment only is thus evolved after the direct manner, but a whole cluster of large establishments. Such a case as that of Barrow shows us a town with its great iron-works, its vast importing and exporting estab- lishments, its large docks and means of communication, all in the space of a few years framed after that type which it has taken many centuries to develop through sucoessive modifications.
An allied but even more marked change in the evolu- tionary process, is also common to both cases. Just as in the embryo of a high animal, various organs have their im- portant parts laid down out of their original order, in anticipation, as it were; so, with the body at large, it happens that entire organs which, during the serial genesis of the type, came comparatively late, come in the evolving individual comparatively soon. This, which Prof. Haeckel has called heterochrony, is shown us in the early marking out of the brain in a mammalian embryo, though in the lowest vertebrate animal, no brain ever exists; or, again, in the segmentation of the spinal column before any alimentary Bystem is formed^ thongh^ in a proto-yertebratej even -when its tdimentaiy system is completed, there are bat feeble signs of that segmentation from which a vertebrate axis may follow. The analogous change of order in social eyolntion, is shown us by new societies which inherit the confirmed habits of old ones. Instance the United States, where a town in the far west, laid down in its streets and plots, has its hotel, church, post-office, built while there are but few houses; and where a line of railway is run through the wilderness in anticipation of settlements. Or instance Australia, where but a few years after the huts of gold diggers begin to cluster round some new mines, there is established a printing-office and journal; though, in the mother-country, centuries passed before a town of like size developed a like agency.
CHAPTER V.
SOCIAL FUNCTIONS.
§ 234. Ohanges of stractares cannot oconr without changes of functions. Mucli that was said in the List chapter might, therefore, be said here with substituted terms. Indeed, as in societies many changes of structure are more indicated by changes of function than directly seen, it may be said that these last have been already de- scribed by implication.
There are, however, certain functional traits not mani- festly implied by traits of structure. To these we may deyote a few pages.
§ 235. If organization consists in such a construction of the whole that its parts can carry on mutually-dependent actions, then in proportion as organization is slight, the parts must be comparatively independent of one another; while, conversely, along with high organization must go a dependence of each part upon the rest so great that separa- tion is fatal. This truth is equally well shown us in the in- dividual organism and in the social organism.
The lowest animal-aggregates are so constituted that each portion, like every other in appearance, carries on like actions; and here spontaneous or artificial separation inter- feres scarcely at all with the life of either part. When the faintly-differentiated speck of protoplasm forming a SOCIAL ITTNCnOKS. 505 Bhusopod is accidentally divided^ each division goes on aa before. So^ too^ with those aggregates of the second order in which the components remain substantially alike. The ciliated monads clothing the homy fibres of a living spongCj need one another's aid so little that, when the sponge is cut in two, each half carries on its processes with- out interruption. Eren where some unlikeness has arisen among the units, as in the familiar polype, the perturbation caused by division is but temporary: the two or more por- tions resulting, need only a little time for the units to re- arrange themselves into the fit forms before resuming their ordinary simple actions. The like happens for the like reason with the lowest social aggregates. A headless wandering group of primitive men divides without any inconvenience. Each man, at once warrior, hunter, and maker of his own weapons, hut, etc., with squaw who has in every case the like drudgeries to carry on, needs con- cert with his fellows only in war and to some extent in the chase; and, except for fighting, concert with half the tribe is as good as concert with the whole. Even where the slight differentiation implied by chieftainship exists, little inconvenience results from voluntary or enforced separation. Either before or after a part of the tribe migrates, some man becomes head, and such low social life as is possible recommences.
With highly-organized aggregates of either kind it is very different. We cannot cut a mammal in two without causing immediate death. Twisting off the head of a fowl is fatal. Not even a reptile, though it may survive the loss of its tail, can live when its body is divided. And among annulose creatures it similarly happens that though in some inferior genera, bisection does not kill either half, it kills both in an insect, an arachnid, or a crustacean. If in high societies the effect of mutilation is less, still it is great. Middlesex separated from its surroundings would in a few days have all its social processes stopped 506 THs iHDircTUHni or bocioloot.
by lack of supplies. Cat off ihe cotton-district from Liverpool and other ports, and there would come arrest of its industry followed by mortality of its people. Let a division be made between the coal-mining populations and adjacent populatious which smelt metals or make broadcloth by machinery, and both, forthwith dying socially by arrest of their actions, would begin to die indiyiduaDy. Though when a civilized society is so divided that part of it is left without a central controlling agency, it may presently evolve one; yet there is meanwhile much risk of dissolution, and before re-organization is tolerably efficient, a long period of disorder and weakness must be passed through.
So that the consensus of functions becomes closer as die evolution advances. In low aggregates, both individual and social, the actions of the parts are but lifctle dependmit on one another; whereas in developed aggregates of both kinds, that combination of actions which constitutes the life of the whole, makes possible the component actions which constitute the lives of the parts.
§ 236. Another corollary, manifest d priori and proved i posteriori, must be named. Where parts are little differ- entiated, they can, with comparative facility, perform one another's functions; but where much differentiated they can perform one another's functions very imperfectly, or not at all.
Again the common polype furnishes a clear illustration. One of these sack-shaped creatures admits of being turned inside out, so that the skin becomes stomach and the stomach becomes skin: each thereupon beginning to do the work of the other. The higher we rise in the scale of organization the less practicable do we find such exchanges. Still, to a small extent, substitutions of functions remain pos- sible in the most developed creatures. Even in man the skin shows a trace of its original absorptive power, now mono- polized by the alimentary canal: it takes into ihe system ^ SOCIAL PtTNCTIONS. 507 certain Btnall amonnts of matters rubbed on to it. Sucli yiearious actions are, however, most manifest between parts having functions that are still allied. If^ for instance, escape of the bile separated by the liver is impeded, other excretory organs, the kidneys and the skin, become channels through which bile is got rid of. If a cancer in the oBsophagus pre- vents swallowing, the arrested food, dilating the oesophagus, forms a pouch in which imperfect digestion is.set up. But these small abilities of the differentiated parts to discharge one another's duties, are not displayed where the structures and functions have diverged more widely. Though mucous membrane, continuous with skin at various orifices, will, if everted, assume to a considerable extent the characters and powers of skin, yet serous membrane will not; nor can bone or muscle undertake, for any of the viscera, portions of their functions if they fail.
In social organisms, low and high^ we find these relatively great and relatively small powers of substitution. Of course, where each member of the tribe repeats every other in his mode of life, there are no unlike functions to be exchanged; and where there has arisen only that small differentiation im- pUed by the barter of weapons for other articles, between one member of the tribe skilled in weapon-making and others who are less skilled, the destruction of this specially-skilled member entails no great evil; since the rest can severally do for themselves that which he did for them, though not quite so well. Even in settled societies of considerable size, we find the like holds to a great degree. Of the ancient Mexicans Zurita says — ''Every Indian knows all handicrafts which do not require great skill or subtle uten- sils;'' and Prescott affirms that in Peru each man ''was expected to be acquainted with the various handicrafts essential to domestic comfort." Here it is plain that the parts of the societies were so slightly differentiated in their occupations, that assumption of one another's occu- pations remained practicable. But in societies like our 508 THx nrDucnoHs ot sooiologt.
own, specialized indastrially and oiherwiae in higli degrees, the actions of one part which &ils in its function cannot be assumed by other parts. Eyen the relatiyely nnakilled farm labourers would have their duties very inadequately per- formed by the urban population, were they to strike; and our iron manufactures would be almost stopped if their specially-trained artisans, refusing to work, had to be re- placed by peasants or hands from cotton-factories. Still less could the higher functions, legisktive, judicial, etc, be effectually performed by coal-miners and navvies.
Evidently the same reason for this contrast holds in the two cases. In proportion as the units forming any part of an individual organism are limited to one kind of action, as that of absorbing, or secreting, or contracting, or conveying an impulse, and become adapted to that action, they lose adaptation to other actions; and in the social organism the discipline or culture required for the effectual discharge of a special duty, implies diminished fitness for discharging the special duties of others.
§ 237. Beyond these two chief functional analogies be- tween individual organisms and social organisms, that when thoy are little evolved, division or mutilation causes small inconvenience but when they are much evolved it causes great perturbation or death, and that in low types of either kind the parts can assume one another's functions but cannot in high types; sundry consequent functional analogies might be enlarged upon did space permit.
There is the truth that in both kinds of organisms the vitality increases in proportion as the functions become specialized. In either case, before there exist variously- adapted structures for the unlike actions, these are ill- performed; and in the absence of developed appliances for furthering it, the utilization of one another's services is but slight. But along with advance of organization, every part, more limited in its office, performs its office better; the means of excliaiigiiig benefits become greater; eacb aids all and all aid each with increasing efficiency; and the total activity we call life, indiyidnal or national, augments.
Much, too, remains to be said aboat the parallelism between the changes by which the functions become specialized; bat this, along with other parallelisms, will best be seen on fol- lowing out, as we will now do, the eyolution of the several great systems of organs, individual and social: considering their respective structural and functional traits together.
CHAPTER VI.
SYSTEMS OF OBGAKS.
§ 237. The hypothesis of eyolation implies a truth that was established independently of it — ^the truth that all animals^ howeyer nnlike they finally become, begin their developments in like ways. The first stmctoral changes, once passed through in common by diyergent types, are re- peated in the early changes undergone by eyery new indivi- dual of each type. Admitting some exceptions, chiefly among parasites, this is recognized as a general law.
This common method of deyelopment among organisms, is a method which we may expect to find paralleled by some common method among social organisms; and our expecta'- tion will be verified.
§ 238. In First Prwciples (§§ 149—152) and in the Pnn- eiples of Biology {§§ 287 — ^9) were described the primaiy organic differentiations which arise in correspondence with the primary contrasts of conditions among the parts, as outer and inner. Neglecting earlier stages, let us pass to those which show us the resulting systems of organs in their simplest forms.
The aggregated units composing the lowest ccelenterate animal, have become so arranged that there is an outer layer of them directly exposed to the surrounding medium with its inhabitants, and an inner layer lining the digestive cavity STaTBKS OF OB0AN8. 511 directly exposed only to the food. From units of tiie oater layer are formed those tentacles by which small creatures are caught, and those thread-cells, as they are called, -whence are ejected minute weapons against invading larger creatures; while by units of the inner layer is poured out the solvent which prepares the food for that absorption which they afterwards effect, both for their own sustenta- tion and for the sustentation of the rest. Here we have in its first stage the fundamental distinction which pervades the animal kingdom, between the external parts which deal with environing existences — prey, enemies, etc.-— and the internal parts which utilize for the benefit of the entire body the nutritious substances which the extenial parts have secured. Among the higher Ocdenterata a complication occurs. In place of each single layer of units there is a double layer, and between the two double layers a space. This space, partially separate from the stomach in creatures of this type, becomes completely shut o£E in types above it. In these superior types the outer double layer forms the wall of the body; the inner double layer bounds the alimentary cavity; and the space between them, containing such nutritive matters as are absorbed, is the so-called peri-visceral sac. Though the above* described two simple layers with their intervening proto- plasm, are but analogous to the outer and inner systems of higher animals, these two double layers, with the inter- vening cavity, are homologous wUh the outer and inner sys- tems of higher animals. For in the course of evolution this outer double layer gives rise to the. skeleton, the nervo- muscular system, the organs of sense, the protecting struc- tures, etc.; while the inner double layer becomes the ali- mentary canal with its numerous appended organs, which almost monopolize the cavity of the body.
Early stages which are in principle analogous, occur in the evolution of social organisms. When from low tribes en- tirely undifferentiated, we pass to tribes next above them, we 512 THE INDUCTIONS OF 80CI0L00T.
find clasBes of masters and slares — ^masters who^ as warriors carry on the offensiye and defensive actiyities of the tribe, and thns especially stand in relations to environing agencies; and slaves who carry on inner activities for the general sos- tentation^ primarily of their masters and secondarily of themselves. Of course this unlikeness is at first vague. Where the tribe subsists mainly on wild animals, its domi- nant class, not only warriors but hunters, takes a large share in procuring food; and such few captives as are made by war, form a subject class which performs the less skilled and more laborious parts of the process of sustentation. But along with progress to the agricultural state, the differentiation becomes more appreciable. Though members of the domi- nant class superintending the labour of their slaves in the fields, sometimes join in it — ^though the smaller chiefs and even the greater chiefs occasionally do this; yet the subject- class is the one immediately in contact with the food-supply, and the dominant class, more remote from the food-supply, is becoming directive only, with respect to internal actions, while it is both executive and directive with respect to ex- ternal actions, offensive and defensive. A society thns composed of two strata in immediate contact, compli- cates by the rise of grades within each stratum. For small tribes the structure just described suffices; but where there are formed aggregates of tribes, necessarily having more developed governmental and defensive agencies, with ac- companying more developed industrial agencies supporting them, the higher and lower strata severally begin to dif- ferentiate internally. The superior class, besides minor distinctions that arise locally, originates everywhere a sup- plementary class of personal adherents who are mostly also warriors; while the inferior class begins to separate into bond and free. Various of the Malayo-Polynesian societies show us this stage. Among the East Africans, the Congo people, the Coast Negroes, the Inland Negroes, we find the same general sub-division — the king with his relatives, the SYSTEMS OF ORGANS. 513 chief-class^ tlie common people^ the slaves; of which the first two with their immediate dependents carry on the cor- porate actions of the society, and the second two those actions of relatively- separate kinds which yield it all the necessaries of life.
§ 239. In both individual and social organisms, after the outer and inner systems have been marked oS from one another, there begins to arise a third system, lying between the two and facilitating their co-operation. Mutual depend- ence of the primarily-contrasted parts, implies intermedia- tion; and in proportion as they respectively develop, the apparatus for exchange of products and of influences must develop too. This we find it does.
In the low coelenterate animal first described, consisting of inner and outer layers with intervening protoplasm, the nutritiye matter which members of the inner layer have absorbed from prey caught by members of the outer layer, is transn^itted almost directly to these members of the outer layer. Not so, however, in the superior type. Between the double-layered body-wall and the double-layered alimentary cavity, there is now a partially-separate peri- visceral sac; and this serves as a reservoir for the digested matters from which the surrounding tissues take up their shares of pre- pared food. Here we have the rudiment of a distributing system. Higher in the animal series, as in Molltisca, this peri-visceral sac, quite shut off, has ramifications running through the body, carrying nutriment to its chief organs; and in the central part of the sac has arisen a contractile tube which, by its occasional pulses, causes irregular movements in the nutritive fluid. Further advances are shown by the gradual lengthening and branching of it, until dividing and sub-dividing it becomes a set of blood-vessels, while its cen- tral part becomes a heart. A^ fast as this change progresses, the nutriment taken up from the alimentary structures, is distributed by those vascular structures to the outer and 514 THX INDUCTIONS OV 800IOL0GT.
inner organs in proportion to their needs. Evidently this distributing system must arise between the two pre-eadsting systems; and it necessarily complicates and ramifies in pro- portion as the parts to which it carries materials become more remote^ more numerous^ and severally more complex. The like happens in societies. The lowest lypes have no distributing systems — no roads or traders exist. The two original classes are in contact. Any slaves possessed by a member of the dominant class^ stand in such direct relation to him that the transfer of products takes place without an intervening agency; and each family being self-sufficing^ there is no need for men to efEect exchanges of products between families. Even after these two primary divisions become partially subdivided, we find that so long as the social aggregate is a congeries of tribes severally carrying on within themselves the needful productive activities^ a dis- tributing system is scarcely traceable: occasional assemblings for barter alone occur. But as progressing consolidation of such tribes makes possible the localization of industries, there begins to show itself a special appliance for trans- feri*ing commodities; consisting now of single hawkers, now of travelling companies of traders, and growing with the formation of roads into an organized system of whole- sale and retail distribution that spreads everywhere* § 240. There is, then, parallelism between these three great systems in the two kinds of organisms. Moreover^ they arise in the social organism in the same order as in the individual organism; and for the same reasons.
A society lives by absorbing matters from the earth — ^tbe mineral matters used for buildings, fuel, etc., the vegetal matters raised on its surface for food and clothing, the animal znatters elaborated from these with or without human regulation; and the lowest social stratum is the one through which such matters are taken up and delivered to agents who p4u»s them into the general current of commodities: the SY8TBM8 OF OBGANS. 515 higher part of this lowest stratum being that which in work- shops and factories elaborates some of these materials before they go to consumers. Hence it is undeniable that the classes engaged in manual occupations play the same part in the function of social sustentation, as is played by the components of the alimentary surfaces in the sustenta- tion of a living body. No less certain is it that the entire class of men engaged in buying and selling com- modities of all kindsj on large and small scales^ and in sending them along channels gradually formed to all dis- trictSj towns^ and individuals^ so enabling them to make good the waste caused by action^ are^ along with those channels^ fulfilling an office essentially like that fulfilled in a living body by the vascular system; which, to every organ and every unit of it, brings a current of nutritive matters pro- portionate to its activity. And it is equally mani- fest that while in the living body, the brain, the organs of sense, and the limbs guided by them, distant in position from the alimentary surfaces, are fed through the tortuous channels of the vascular system; so the controlling parts of a society, most remote from the operative parts, have brought to them through courses of distribution often extremely indirect, the needful supplies of consumable articles.
That the order of evolution is necessarily the same in the two cases, is just as clear. In a creature that is both very small and very inactive, like a hydra, direct passage of nutri- ment from the inner layer to the outer layer by absorption suffices. But in proportion as the outer structures, becoming more active, expend more, simple absorption from adjacent tissues no longer meets the resulting waste; and in pro- portion as the mass becomes larger, and the parts which prepare, nutriment consequently more remote from the parts which consume it, there arises the need for a means of transfer. Until the two original systems have been marked off from one another, this tertiary system lias no funcol6 THE nn>CCTI<W8 OF SOCIOLOGY.
tion; and when the two CNrighuJ sjst/ems mac, thej can- not develop far withoat corresponding derelopment of this tertiary system. In the evolution of the social organiaan we Koe the like. Where there exists onlja dass of masters and a cUss of shives in direct contact with it, an i^pUanoe for transferring products has no place; bat a larger society with classes exercising Tarioos i^olatiTe functions^ and with localities deroted to different industries, not only siffords a phice for a transferring system, but can grow and complicate only on condition that this transferring system makes proportionate advances.
And now, having observed the relations among these three great systems, we may trace out the evolution of eadi by itself.
CHAPTER Vn.
THE SUSTAINING SYSTEM.