advance; presence or proximity of tin, rendering bronze possible, may clause a further step; and if there are iron-ores, a still further step may presently be taken. So, too, the supply or want of lime for mortar, affects the sizes and types of buildings, private and public; and thus influences domestic and social habits, as well as a^sthetio eulture. Even down to such a minor peculiarity as the presence of hot springs, which in ancient Central America initiated a local manufacture of pottery, there would have to be traced the influence of each particular combination of conditions in determining the prevailing industry, and there- fore, in part, the type of social organization.
But a detailed account of the original external factors^ whether of the more important kinds outlined in preceding OBiaiKAL SXTBSNAL ffACTOBS* 89 pages or of the less important kinds just exemplified^ pertains to what we may here distinguish as Special Sociology. Any one who^ carrying with him the general principles of the science^ undertook to interpret the evo- lution of each society^ would hare to give an exhaustive account of these many local causes in their various kinds and degfrees. Such an undertaking must be left for the soci- ologists of the future.
§ 21. Here mypurposehas been simplyto give general ideas of the original external factors, in their different classes and orders; so as to impress on the reader the truth, baarely enunciated in the preceding chapter, that the characters of the environment co-operate with the characters of human- beings in determining social phenomena.
One of the results of enumerating these original external factors and observing the important parts they play, has been that of bringing into view the fact, liable to be over- looked, that the earlier stages of social evolution are far more dependedt on local conditions than the later stages. Thongli societies such as we are now most familiar with, IngUy organized, rich in appliances, advanced in know- ledge, can, by the help of various artifices, thrive in un- favourable habitats; yet feeble, unorganized societies cannot do so: they are at the mercy of their natural surroundings. And, seeing that, this is so with the inferior social types now existing, we may infer that it was even more so with the still-less-developed types which preceded them.
It should be observed, too, that we thus find answers to the questions sometimes raised as obstacles to the general doctrine of social evolution — How does it happen that so many tribes of savages have made no nmnif est progress during the long period over which human records extend? And if it is true that the human race existed during the later geologic periods, why, for 100,000 years or more, did no traceable civilization result? To these questions, I say.
40 THE DATA OF SOCIOLOGY.
adequate replies are furnished. When we glance over the classes and orders of original external factors above set down^ and.observe how rare is that combination of &vonr« able ones and absence of nnfavonrable ones, by which alone the germs of societies can be fostered; when we remember that in proportion as the appliances are few and mde, the knowledge small, and the power of co-operation undeveloped, the establishment of any improvement in face of surround- ing difficulties must take a long period; when we remember that this same helplessness of primitive social groups left them exposed to each adverse change, and so caused repeated k>sses of the small advances made; it becomes easy to understand why, for an enormous period, no con- siderable soeieties were evolved.
But now having made a general survey of these original external factors; having recognized the all-important part they play in soeial evolution, especially during its first stages; and having noted the explanation thus yielded of the tardy appearance of civilization and of its non-appear- ance over a large part of the world; we may here leave all detailed consideration of them as not further concerning us. For in dealing, as we have now to do,, with the Principles of Sociology, we have to deal with facts of structure and function displayed by societies in general,, dissociated, so f,*r as may be, Irom special facts due to special.ircom- stances.. Henceforth we shall occupy ourselves with those chaiacters of societies which depend mainly on the intrinsic natures of th^r units, rather than with the characters deter- mined by particular extrinsic influences: these wiU be re- cognized but occasionally or but tacitly.
CHAPTER 17.
ORIGINAL INTERNAL FA0T0R8.
§ 22. As with the original external factors^ so with the original internal factors — an adequate account of them sup* poses a for greater knowledge of the past than we can get. On the one hand, from men's bones, and objects betraying men's actions, discoyered in geological formations and in cave-deposits, dating back to periods since which there hare been great changes of climate and re-distributions of land and sea, we must infer that the habitats of mankind have been ever undergoing modifications; though what modificar tions we can but vaguely guess. On the other hand, unceas- ing alterations of habitats imply that the races subject to them have been undergoing changes of function and struc-. ture; respecting most of which we can know Uttle more than their occurrence.
Such fragmentary evidence as we have at present, does not warrant definite conclusions respecting the ways and degprees in which men of the remote past differed from men now existing. There are, indeed, remains which, taken by themselves, indicate inferiority of lype in ancestral races, llie Neanderthal-skull, and others like it, with their enor- mous supra-orbital ridges, so simian in character, are among these. There is also the skull lately found by Mr. Gillman, in a mound on the Detroit river, ])fichigftn, and described by him as chimpamiee-like in th^ largeness of the areas over.
42 TUB DtAZA or Boaawer.
whidi the iemponl immrJwi were inaflrted. But as iiiia remaikable sknll was foand akm^ wiQi otiien Hmt were not remaikable^ and ss siidi sknns ss ihsi from the cave in the Neandeiihal aie not proved to be of nme aneient date than sknDs which deviate little from conmicm fonns, no decisive inf erenoes can be drawn. Similarly with other parts of skeletans. A bone from the cave at Settle^ left thereto Mr. Oeikie thinks^ before the last inter-glacial period, and identified bj Professor Bnsk as hmnan, is described by him as part of ^an mrasnaUy clmnsy fibula;^ and he observes that it is similar in dia- racter to one found in a cave at Mentone. At the same time, howerer, he points oat that there is in die mnsenm of the College of Snrgeons, a recent fibula similarly dnmsy. All we seem warranted in saying is that what was in those days a not infrequent, and probably a general, trait^ is now a rare one. A kindred^ bat perhaps a somewhat more positiTe, statement, may be made respecting the extreme compression of the tibise in certain ancient races, which is expressed by the epithet '^phvtycnemic/' First pointed ont by Professor Bosk and Dr. Falconer, as charac- terizing the men who left their bones in the caves of GilmU»r, this peculiarity, shortly afterwards discovered by H. Broca in the remains of cave-men in France, was ob- served afresh by Mr. Bosk in remains from caves in Den- bighshire; and more recently Mr. GHUman has shown HHt it characterises tibias fonnd along with Ab mAeet stone- implements in monnds on Ae St. Glair river, Michigan. As ibis trait is not known to distingoish any races now living, while it existed in races which lived in localities so far apart as Gibraltar, France, Wales, and North America, we may &irly infer that an ancient race, distributed over a wide area.^ was in so fiir unlike races which have survived. Two g^ieral conclusions only seem warranted by the facts at present known. The first is that in remote epochs, as now, there were varieties of men distinguished OBlGUflL mrSSSAL VACTOBS* 48 by differences of osseons stmctiiTe considerable in degree, and probably by other differences; and tHe second is, that some traits of brutality and inferiority exhibited in certain of these andent varietiesi hare either disappeared or occnr only as nnosnal yariations.
§ 23. Thns respecting the original internal factors, taken in that oomprehensiye sense which includes the traits of pre-historic man, we can ascertain yerj little. Bat recog- nizing this tmth, we may fairly draw from the' researches of geologists and archsdologists, the inference that through- out long-past periods, as since the commencement of history, there has been going on a continuous differentiation of races, a continuous oyer-running of the less powerful or less adapted by the more powerful or more adapted, a driving of inferior yarieties into undesirable habitats, and, occasionally, an extermination of inferior yarieties.
And now, carrying with ua this general conception of primitiye man, we must be content to fill it out, so far as we may, by studying those existing races of men which, as judged by their physical characters and their implements, approach most nearly to primitiye man. Instead of in- cluding in one tSampb&c all the classes and sub-classes of tnitB to be set down, it will be most conyenient to group them into three chapters. We will take first the physical, then the emotional, lastly the intelkoliiaL CHAPTER V.
THK PKIMITIVB MAN — ^PHYSICAL.
§ 24. In face of the fact that the nncmlized races in-* elude the Patagonians, ranging from six to seven feet in height^ while in Africa there still exist remnants of the bar- barous people referred to by Herodotus as pygmies, we cannot say that there is any direct relation between social state and stature. Among the North-American Indians there are hunting races decidedly tall; while, elsewhere, there are stunted hunting races, as the Bushmen. Of pastoral peoples, too, some are short, like the E^irghiz, and some are well-grown, like the Kaffirs. And there are kin- dred differences between races of agricultural habits.
Still, the evidence taken in the mass implies an average relation between barbarism and- inferiority of size. In North America the Chinooks and sundry neighbouring tribes are described as low in stature; and the Shoshones are said to be of ''very diminutive stature.*' Of the South- American races it is asserted that the Guiana Indian is mostly much below 5 ft. 5in.; that the Arawaks average 5 ft. 4 in.; and that the Ghiaranis rarely reach 5 ft. So, too, is it with the uncivilized peoples of Northern Asia. Pallas classes the Ostyaks as short; the Kirghiz are said to average 5ft. 3 or 4 in.; and we read that the E^amtschadales ''are in general of low stature.'* In Southern Asia it is the same. One authority describes, generally, the Tamulian THS PRDCITIYE MAN — ^PHTSIGAL. 45 aborigines of India as smaller than (he Hindus. An- other^ writing of the Hill-tribes^ says of the Pattooahs that '^ the men do not exceed 5 ft. 2 in.^ aud the women 4 ft. 4 in.'' Another estimates the Lepchas as averaging about 5 ft. And the Ju&ngs, perhaps the most degraded of these tribes^ are set down as^ males less than 5 ft.^ and women 4ft. Sin. But this relationship is most clearly im- .plied on grouping together the very lowest races. Of the Fuegians we read that some tribes are " not more than 5 ft. high''; of the Andamanese, that the men vary from 4 ft. 10 in. to nearly 5 ft.; of the Yeddahs, that the range is from 4ft. 1 in. to 5 ft. Sin. — ^the common height being about 4 ft. 9 in. Again^ the ordinary height of the Bush- men is given as 4 ft. 4^ in.^ or^ according to Barrow^ 4ft. 6 in. for the average man, and. 4ft. for the average woman. While their allies, the Akka^ lately discovered in the heart of Africa by Schweinfurth, are said by him to ,vary from 4ft. 1 in. to 4ft. 10. in.: the women^whom he did jiot see, being presumably still smaller.
How for is this an original trait of inferior races, and how far is it a trait superinduced by the unfavourable habitats into which superior races have driven them?. Evi- dently the dwarfishness of Esquimaux and Laplanders may •be due partly, if not wholly, to the great physiological cost of living entailed by the rigorous x^limate they have to bear; and it no more shows the dwarfishness of primi- tive men than does the small size of Shetland ponies show that primitive horses were smalL Similarly in the case of the Bushmen, who are wanderers in a - territory '^ of so barren and arid a character, that by far the greater portion of it is not permanently habitable by any class of human beings," it is supposable that chronic innutrition has pro- duced a lower standard of growth.. Manifestly, as the weaker were always iiurust by the stronger into the worst localities, there must ever have been a tendency to make greater any original difference of stature and strength.
46 THS DATA or 80CI0L00T.
Hence the smallnesB of these most degraded men, may have been original; or it may have been acquired; or it may haye been partly orig^inal and partly acquired. In one case, however, I learn on good authority that the low stature was probably original. Facts do not justify the belief that the Bushmen, the Akka, and kindred races found in Africa, are dwarfed varieties of the Negro race; but suggest the belief that they are fragments of a race which the Negproes dispossessed. And this conclusion, warranted by the physical differences, is countenanced by general probability and by analogy. Without making much of the rumoured dwarf -race in Idie central parts of Madagascar, or of that in the interior of Borneo, it suffices to recall the Hill-tribes of India, which are remnants of the indigenes islanded by the flood of Aiyans, or the tribes further east, similarly islanded by the invading Mongols, or to the Mantras of the Malay-peninsula, to see that this process, exemplified too in pre-historic Britain by the extinction of the small men who left their bones in the Denbighshire caves, has probably occurred in Africa; and that these tribes of diminutive people are remnants of a people originally small, and not dwarfed by conditions.
Still, other evidence may be cited to show that we are not justified in conceiving primitive man as very decidedly inferior in size to man of developed type. The Australians, who, both individually and sodally, are very low, reach a moderate stature; as did also the now-extinct Tasmanians. Nor do the bones of races which have disappeared, yield manifest proof that pre-historic man was, on the average, much less than historic man. Nevertheless, while recog- nizing the fact that among races not wholly uncivilized, as the Fijians^ Kaffirs, some of the Negro-tribes, etc., there are very fine men, I have the opinion of a distinguished naturalist and anthropologist to the effect that the lowest races in general, do not equal in size the civilized races of Northern Europe.
THA Fsncinyx man — ^physical. 47 We sliall probably be safe in concluding that throaghout ihe pafit^ as at present^ and that with tbe hnman race as other races, size is bn^ one trait of higher eyolution, which may or may not coexist with other traits; and that, within certain limits, it is determined by local conditionB, which here fayonr the preservation of the largest, and elsewhere, when nothing is gained by size, condnce to the spread of a smaller variety relatively more prolific. Bnt we may farther conclude that since, in the struggle for existence between races, superiority of size gives advantages, there has been a tendency to increase, which has told where other conditions bave allowed; and that the average primitive man was somewhat less than is the average civilized man, § 25. As of stature, so of structure, we must say that the contrast is not very marked. Passing over smaller distinctive traits shown us by some of the lowest human races, such as the deviation in the form of the pelvis, and the existence of solid bone where in the civilized the frontal sinus exists, we may limit ourselves to traits whicb have here a meaning for us.
Men of inferior types appear to be generally charac* terized by relatively-defective development of the lower limbs. Sufficiently marked as this is to have attracted the attention of trarellers among various unrelated races, we shall probably not be wrong in setting it down as a primi- tive character. Pallas describes the Ostjraks as having ^' thin and slender legs.'' I find two authorities mentioning the "short legs'' and '^ slender legs" of the EiamtBcha- dales. So, among the Hill-tribes of India, Stewart says the Kookdes hare legs " short in comparison to the length of their bodies, and their arms long." Of sundry American races the like fact is remarked. We read of the Chinooks that they haye " small and crooked " legs; of the Guaranis, tiiat their "arms and legs are relatively short and thick;" and ev^i of the gigantic Patagonians it is asserted that 4£ THS DATA OF SOCIOLOGY.
'^ their limbs are neither so mnscolar nor so large«1x)ned as their height and apparent bulk wonld induce one to sup* pose/' This truth holds in Australia^too. Even if the leg- bones of Australians are equal in size to those of Europeans, it is unquestionable that their legs are inferior iiji mass of muscle: the lower part of the figure is of feebler make than the upper. Though I find no direct statement respect- ing the Puegians under this head, yet since, whHe said to be short, they are said to haye bodies comparable in bulk to those of higher races, it is inferable that their deficiency of height results from the shortness of their legs. Lastly, the description which Schweinfurth gives of the Akka, shows that not only have they ''short, bandy legs,'' but that^ though they are extremely agile (their small size giving them advantages in relative activity), their powers of locomotion are defective: " every step they take is accom- panied by a lurch;" and Schweinfurth describes iixe one who was with him for nmny months, as never able to carry a full dish without spilling. Those remains of extinct races lately referred to, seem also to countenance the belief that the primitive man was characterized by lower limbs inferior to our own: the " unusually clumsy fibula " found in the Settle cave, and the one found at Mentone, as well as the platycnemic tibia once so widely prevalent, seem to imply this. While recognizing differences, we may fairly /say that this trait of relatively-inferior legs is sufficiently marked; and it is a trait which, remotely simian, is also repeated by tlie child of the civilized man.
That the balance of power between legs and arms, which was originally better adapted to climbing habits, is likely to have been changed in the course of progress, is manifest. During the struggles between races, ever invading one another's localities, an advantage must have been gained by those having the legs somewhat more developed at the expense of the' body at large. I do not mean chiefly an advantage in ^swiftness or agility; I mean in trials of THX FBDOTIVB ICAN — PHTSICAL. 40 strength at close qaarters. In combat, the power exercised by arms and tmnk is limited by the power of the legs to withstand the strain thrown on them. Hence, apart from advantages in locomotion, the stronger-legged races have tended to become, other things eqnal, dominant races.
Among other stmctoral traits of the primitive man which we have to note, the most marked is the larger size of the jaws and teeth. This is shown not simply in that prognathous form characterizing various inferior races, and, to an extreme degree, the Akka, but it is shown also in the races otherwise characterized: even ancient British skulls have relatively-massive jaws. That this trait is connected with the eating of coarse food, hard, tough, and often un- cooked, and perhaps also with the greater use of the teeth in place of tools, as we see our own boys use them, is fairly inferable. Diminution of function has brought diminution of size^ both of the jaws and of the attached muscles. Whence, too, as a remoter sequence, that diminution of the zygomatic arches through which these muscles pass: pro- ducing an additional difference of outline in the civilized face.
These changes are noteworthy as illustrating, unmistak- ably, the reaction which social development, with all the appliances it brings, has on the structure of the social unit. And recognizing the externally-visible changes arising from this cause, we can the less doubt the occurrence of important internal changes, as of brain, arising from the same cause.
§ 26. One further structural trait may be dealt with in immediate connexion with physiological traits. I refer to the size of the digestive organs.
Here we have to deal with very inadequate evidence. In the absence of some conspicuous modification of figure caused by large stomach and intestines, this character is one not likely to have been noticed by travellers: a consider- able difference of internal capacity may have existed without attracting attention as a peculiarity. Still, we 5C THB DATA OF 8OOIOL0GT« haye some evidence in point. Giieve describes ihe Kamt- schadales as having "a liang^ng belly, slender legs and arms/' Of the Bushmen, Barrow says, '^ their bellies are uncommonly protuberant/' Schweinfurth speaks of the ^' large, bloated belly and short, bandy legs " of the Akka; and elsewhere, describing the structure of this degraded type of man, he says — ''The superior region of the chest is flat, and much contracted, but it widens out below to support the huge hanging belly/' Indirect evidence is supplied by the form of the young, alike of civilized and savage peoples. Doubtless, the relatively- large abdomen in the child of the civilized man, is in the main an embryonic trait. But as the children of inferior races are more distinguished in this way than our own children, we get indirect reason for thinking that the less- developed man was thus distinguished from the more- developed. Schweinfurth refers to the children of the African Arabs as like the Akka in this respect. Describing the Yeddahs, Tennant mentions the protuberant stomachs of the children. Galton, after saying of the Damara children that ''all have dreadfully swelled stomachs," expresses his surprise that they should become so well shaped at maturity. And from Dr. Hooker I learn that the like trait holds throughout Bengal.
The possession of a relatively-larger alimentary system is, indeed, a character of the lowest races inferable from their immense capacities for containing and digesting food. These capacities are made familiar to us by travellers. Wrangel says each of the Yakuts ate in a day six times as many fish as he could eat. Cochrane describes a five-year- old child of this race as devouring three candles, several pounds of sour frozen butter, and a large piece of yellow soap; and adds — " I have repeatedly seen a Yakut, or a Tongousi, devour forty pounds of meat in a day." Of the Comanches, Schoolcraft says — " After long abstinence they eat voraciously, and without apparent inconvenience/' THS PBIMITiyE HAK — ^PHTSICAL. 51 Thompson remarks ihat the Bushmen have '^ powers of stomach similar to the beasts of prey^ both, in voracity and in supporting banger.'^ And no less clear is the implica- tion of the stories of gluttony told by Captain Lyon about the Esquimaux^ and by Sir G. Grey about the Australians* Such traits appear to be necessary. It seems scarcely possible that a digestive apparatus large enough for a civilized man^ feeding at short and regular intervals^ should be large enough for a savage whose meals^ sometimes scanty, sometimes abundant, follow in succession, now quickly, and now after the lapse of days. One who de* pends on the chances of the chase will profit by the ability to digest a great quantity wben it is obtainable, to com- pensate for intervals of semi-starvation. A stomach able to deal only with a moderate meal, must leave its possessor at a disadvantage in comparison with one whose stomach is able, by immense meals, to make up for mauy meals missed. Beyond the need hence arising for a large alimentary system, there is the need arising from the low quality of the food. Wild fruits, nuts, berries, roots, shoots, etc., must be eaten in great masses to yield the required supplies of nitrogenous compounds, fats, and carbo-hydrates; aud of animal food, the insects, larv89, worms, vermin, and offal, consumed in default of larger prey, contain much waste. Indeed, the massive jaws and worn teeth of savages, serve of themselves to show that mnch indigestible matter is masticated and swallowed. Hence, such au abdominal development as the Akka show in a degree which recalls a simian character, may be re- garded as a trait of primitive man that is, in a greater or less degree, necessitated by primitive conditions.
Just noting that some mechanical disadvantage results from having to carry about relatively-larger stomach and intestines, let us observe, chiefly, the physiological effects naturally accompanying such a structure adapted to such circumstances* At times when enormous meals have to be 52 THE DATA OF SOCflOLOOT.
digested, repletion must be accompanied by inertness; and at times when, from lack of food, the energies flag, there can be none to spare for any activities save those prompted by hanger. Clearly, persistent industry is favoured by an equable flow of energy; and this implies regular feeding. The irregular feeding entailed on the primitive man, pre- vents continuous labour: so hindering, in yet another way, the actions required to lead him out of his primitive state.
§ 27. There is evidence that, apart from stature and apart even from muscular development, the uncivilized man is less powerful than the civilized man. He is unable to exert suddenly as great an amount of force, and he is unable to continue the expenditure of force for so long a time. Here are a few testimonies to this effect.
Of the TasmanianSj now no longer existing. Perron said that, though they were vigorous-looking, the dynamometer proved them to be inferior in strength. So, too, of their allies by race, the Papuans: ''although well made,'' these are described as being '' our inferiors in muscular power/' Respecting the aborigines of India, the evidence is not quite consistent. Mason asserts of other Hill-tribes, as of the Karens, that their strength soon flags; while Stewart describes the Kookie boys as very enduring: the anomaly being, as we shall presently see, possibly due to the fact that he did not test their endurance over successive days. While describing the Damaras as having ''immense mus- cular development," Galton says — " I never found one who was anything like a match for the average of my own men" in trials of strength; and Anderson makes a like remark. Galton further observes that " in a long, steady journey the savages [Damaras] quickly knock up unless they adopt some of our usages." Similarly with American races. King found the Esquimaux relatively weak; and Burton remarks of the Dakotahs that, " like all savages, they are deficient in corporeal strength."
THE PBIMITITE MAN — ^PHTSICAL. 53 llere are probably two causes for this contrast between savage and civiliaed — ^relative innutrition, and relatively- smallar development of tbe nervous system. On remembering that a horse out at grass gains in bulk while losing his fitness for continued exertion^ and that to prepare him for hunting he is put on a more nutritive diet under which he diminishes in siae while he increases in power, we shall see that a savage may have bulky limbs and be comparatively weak, and that his weakness may be still more marked when his muscles, fed by a blood of low quality, are, at the same time, small. Men in training for feats of strength, show us that it takes months to raise muscles to their highest powers, whether of sudden exertion or prolonged exertion. Whence it is to be inferred that from food poor in kind and irregularly suppUed, deficiency of strength, under both its forms, will result. The