of persons and things; or again in the sanguinary Da- liomans with their Amazon army, and in the warlike Ashan- tees all trained to arms: both of them under governments so absolute that the highest officials are slaves to the king. Polynesia shows it in the Pijians, whose tribes are ever fight- THY ERQULATINO 8TSTSH. 545 ing with and eating one another^ and among wHom loyalty to absolute rulers is the eztremest imaginable — even so ex* treme that people of a slave district '' said it was their duty to become food and sacrifices for the chiefs/' This relation between the degree of power in the political head and the degree of military activity^ has^ indeed^ been made familiar to us in the histories of ancient and modem civil* ized races. The connexion is implied in the Assyrian in- scriptions as well as in the frescoes and papyri of Egypt. The case of Pausanias and other such cases^ were regarded by the Spartans themselves as showing the tendency of generals to become despots — as showings that is, the ten- dency of active operations against adjacent societies to generate centralized political power. How the imperative- ness fostered by continuous command of armies, and affect- ing a society in proportion as its armies are identified with it, thus passes into political imperativeness, has been again and again shown us in later histories.
Here, then, the induction we have to carry with us is that as in the individual organism that nervo-muscular apparatus which carries on conflict with environing organisms, begins with, and is developed by, that warfare; so the govern- mental-military organization of a society, is initiated by, and evolves along with, the wars between societies. Or to speak more strictly, there is thus evolved that part of its governmental organization which conduces to efficient co- operation against other societies.
§ 251. The development of the regulating system may now be dealt with. Let us first trace the governmental agency through its stages of complication.
In small and little-difierentiated aggregates, individual and social, the regulating structure does not become com- plex: neither the need for it nor the materials for forming and supporting it, exist. But complexity begins in com- pound aggregates. In either case its commencement is seen N N 546 THE INDUCTIONS OF BOCIOLOOT.
in the rise of a saperior co-ordiiiating centre exercising control over inferior centres. Among Animfils the Annidosa illastrate this most clearly. In an annelid the like nervous stractures of the like snccessiYC segments, are but little subordinated to any chief ganglion or group of ganglia* But along with that evolution which, integrating and dif- ferentiating the segments, produces a higher annulose animal, there arise at the end which moves foremost, more developed senses and appendages for action, as well as a cluster of ganglia connected with them; and along with formation of this goes an increasing control exercised by it over the ganglia of the posterior segments. Not very strongly marked in such little-integrated types as centipedes, a nervous centralization of this kind becomes great in such integrated types as the higher crustaceans and the arach- nida. So is it in the progress from compound social aggregates that are loosely coherent to those which are consolidated. Manifestly during those early stages in which the chief of a conquering tribe succeeds only in making the chiefs of adjacent tribes tributary while he lives, the political centralization is but slight; and hence, as in cases before referred to in Africa and else- where, the powers of the local centres re-assert themselves when they can throw off their temporary subordination. Many peoples that have got beyond the stage of sepa- rate simple tribes, show us, along with various degrees of cohesion, various stages in the subjection of local governing centres to a general governing centre. When first visited, the Sandwich Islanders had a king with turbulent chiefs, formerly independent; and in Tahiti there was similarly a monarch with secondary rulers but little subordinate. So was it with the New Zealanders; and so was it with the Malagasy until a century since. The nature of the political organiza- tion during such stages, is shown us by the relative decrees of power which the general and special centres exercise over the people of each division. Thus of the Tahitians we read THS BSOTJLATINO 8T8TBM. 547 that the power of the chief was supreme in his own district^ and greater than that of the king over the whole. Lichten- stein tells us of the Koossas that " they are all vassals of the king, chiefs^ as well as those under them; but the sub- jects are generally so blindly attached to their chiefs, that they will follow them against the king." '^ Scarcely would the slave of an Ashantee chief," says Gruickshank, '' obey the mandate of his king, without the special concurrence of his immediate master." And concerning the three grades of chiefs among the Araucanians, Thompson says of those who rule the smallest divisions that '' their authority is less precarious" than that of the higher officers. These few instances, which might be readily multiplied, remind us of the relations of major and minor political centres in feudal times; when there were long periods during which the subjection of barons to kings was being established — during which failures of cohesion and re-assertions of local authority occurred— during which there was loyalty to the district ruler greater than that to the general ruler.
And now let us note deliberately, what was before im- plied, that this subordination of local governing centres to a general governing centre, habitually accompanies co- operation of parts of the compound aggregate in its con- flicts with other such aggregates. Between such superior Annulosa as the winged insects and clawed crustaceans above described as having centralized nervous systems, and the inferior Annulosa composed of many similar segments with feeble limbs, the contrast, is not only in the absence from these last of centralized nervous systems, but also in the absence of offensive and defensive appendages of efficient kinds. In the high types, nervous subordination of the posterior segments to the anterior, has accompanied the growth of those anterior appendages which preserve the aggregate of segments in its dealings with prey; and this centralization of the nervous structure has resulted from the co-operation of these ext'Cmal organs. It 548 THR ISDUCnONB OV SOCIOLOGT.
is tlms also with tlie political centralizationB which become permAnent. So long as the sabordinaiion is established by internal conflict of the diyisions with one another, and hence involTCS antagonism among them, it remains unstable; but it tends towards stability in proportion as the regalat- ing agents, major and minor, are habituated to combined action against external enemies. The recent changes in Grermany hare re-iUostrated nnder onr eyes this political centralization by combination in war, which was so abun- dantly illustrated in the Middle Ages by the rise of monarchical governments over numerous fiefs.
How this compound regulating agency for internal con- trol, results from combined external actions of the com- pound aggregate in war, we may understand on remember- ing that at first the army and the nation are substantially the same. As in each pnmitiye tribe the men are all warriors, so, during early stages of civilization the military body is co-extensive with the adult male population, ex- cluding only the slaves — co-extensive with all that part of the society which has political life. In fact the army is the nation mobilized, and the nation the quiescent army. Hence men who are local rulers while at home, and leaders of their respective bands of dependents when fighting a common enemy under direction of a general leader, become minor heads disciplined in subordination to the major head j and as they carry more or less of this subordination home with them, the military organization developed during war sur- vives as the political organization during peace.
Chiefly, however, we have here to note that in the com- pound regulating system formed during the formation of a compound social aggregate, what were originally independ- ent local centres of regulation become dependent local centres, serving as deputies under command of the general centre; just as the local ganglia above described become agents acting under direction of the cephalic ganglia.
§ 252. This formation of a compound regulating system THE RiauIATINa 8T8TEM. 549 obaracterized by a dominant centre and subordinate centres^ is accompanied^ in botb individual organisms and social organisms^ hj increasing size and complexity of tbe domi- nant centre.
In an animal^ along with deyelopment of senses to yield information and limbs to be guided in conformity with it, so that by their co-operation prey may be caught and enemies escaped, there must arise one place to which the various kinds of information are brought, and from which are issued the adjusted motor impulses; and, in proportion as evolu- tion of the senses and limbs progresses, this centre which utilizes increasingly-varied information and directs better- combined movements, necessarily comes to have more numer- ous unlike parts and a greater total mass. Ascending through the annulose sub-kingdom, we find in its higher types this aggregation of optic, auditory, and other ganglia receiving stimuli, together with the ganglia controlling the chief legs, claws, etc. And so in the vertebrate series, beginning in its lowest member with an almost uniform cord formed of local centres undirected by a brain, we rise finally to a cord appended to an integrated cluster of minor centres through which are issued the commands of certain supreme centres growing out of them. In a society it similarly happens that the political agency which gains predominance, is gradually augmented and compli- cated by additional parts for additional functions. The chief of chiefs begins to require helpers in carrying on control. He gathers round him some who get information, some with whom he consults, some who execute his commands. No longer a governing unit, he becomes the nucleus in a cluster of governing units constituting the germ of a ministry. Various stages in this compounding, proceeding generally from the temporary to the permanent, may be observed. In the Sandwich Islands the king and governor have each a number of chiefs who attend on them and execute their orders. Ellis says that the Tahitian king had a prime minis« 550 THl IKDUCnOHS OF flOCIOLOOr.
ter, as well as a few chiefs to give advice; and in Samoa, too^ eacli district chief has a sort of prime minister. Tamer tells ns. Africa shows us stages in this progress from simple personal government to government throagh agents. Among the Beetjoans (a Bechnana people) the king exe- cutes "his own sentence^ even when the criminal is con- demned to death;" and Lichtenstein also tells us of another group of Bechuanas (the Maatjaping) that his people being disorderly, the monarch " swung his tremendous sjambok of rhinoceros leather, striking on all sides, till he fairly drove the whole multitude before him:'' being thereupon imitated by his courtiers. And then of the Bachassin government, belonging to this same race, we learn from Burchell that the duty of the chiefs brother '^ was to convey the chiefs orders wherever the case demanded, and to see them put in execution.^' Among the Koossas, governed by a king and vassal chiefs, every chief has councillors, and the great council of the king is composed of the chiefs of particular kraals. Again, the Zulu sovereign shares his power with two soldiers of hia choice, and these form the supreme judges of the country. Then in the larger and more organized kingdoms, the appendages which add to the size and complexity of the governing centre, are many and fully established. In Dahomey, besides two premiers and various functionaries surrounding the king, there are two judges, of whom one or other is " almost constantly with the king, informing him of every circumstance that passes;'' and, according to Burton, every official is provided with a second in command, who is in reality a spy: facts prov- ing that though the king joins in judging causes, and though when his executioners bungle he himself shows them how to cut off heads, yet he has agents around him into whose hands these functions are gradually lapsing; as, in the compound nervous structures above described, there are appended centres through which information is communicated, and appended centres through which the THJB ftlOUIATINa SYSTJCM. 551 decimons pass into execution. How in ciyilized nations analogons developments have taken place — ^how among our- selyes William the Conqueror made his ''justiciar'^ supreme administrator of law and finance, having under him a body of Secretaries of whom the chief was called Chancellor; how the justiciar became Prime Minister and his staff a supreme court, employed alike on financial and judicial afiEairs and in revision of laws; how this in course of time became special- ized and complicated by appendages; needs not to be shown in detail. Always the central governing agency while being enlarged, is made increasingly heterogeneous by the multi- plication of parts having specialized functions. And then, as in nervous evolution after a certain complication of the directive and executive centres is reached, there begin to grow deliberative centres, which, at first unobtrusive, eventually predominate; so in political evolution, those as- semblies which contemplate the remoter results of political actions, beginning as small additions to the central governing agency, outgrow the rest. It is manifest that these latest and highest governing centres perform in the two cases analogous functions. As in a man the cerebrum, while absorbed in the guidance of conduct at large, mainly in reference to the future, leaves the lower, simpler, older centres to direct the ordinary movements and even the mechanical occupations; so the deliberative assembly of a nation, not attending to those routine actions in the body politic controlled by the various administrative agencies, is occupied with general require- ments* and the balancing of many interests which do not concern only the passing moment. It is to be observed, also, that these high centres in the two cases, are neither the im- mediate recipients of information nor the immediate issuers of commands; but receive from inferior agencies the facts which guide their decisions, and through other inferior agencies get those decisions carried into execution. The cerebrum is not a centre of sensation or of motion; but has the function of using the information brought through the 552 THE INDUCTIOHS OV 800IOLOGT* sensory centres, for determining the actions tc be excited by the motor centres. And in like manner a developed legis- lative body, thongH not incapable of getting impressions directly from the facts, is habitoally goided by impressions indirectly gained throagH petitions, through the press, through reports of committees and commissions, through the heads of ministerial departments; and the judgments it arrives at are executed not by its immediate direction but by the mediate direction of subordinate centres, ministerial, judicial, etc.
One further concomitant may be added. During evolu- tion of the supreme regulating centres, individual and social, the older parts become relatively automatic. A simple ganglion with its afferent and efferent fibres, receives stimuli and issues impulses unhelped and unchecked; but when there gather round it ganglia through which different kinds of impressions come, and others through which go impulses causing different motions, it becomes dependent on these, and in part an agent for transforming the sensory excitements of the first into the motor dis- charges of the last. As the supplementary parts multiply, and the impressions sent by them to the original centre, in- creasing in number and variety, involve multiplied impulses sent through the appended motor centres, this original centre becomes more and more a channel through which, in an increasingly mechanical way, special stimuli lead to appropnate actions. Take, for example, three stages in the vertebrate animal. We have first an almost uniform spinal cord, the successive portions of which receive and send out the sensory and motor nerves supplying the successive por- tions of the body: the spinal cord is here the supreme regulator. Then in the nervous system of vertebrates some- what more advanced, the medulla oblongata and the sensory ganglia at the anterior part of this cranio*spinal axis, taking a relatively large share in receiving those guiding impressions which lead to motor discharges from the spinal THl RKGULATma 8TSTBK. 658 cord, tend to make tliis sabordinate and its actions mech- anical: the sensory ganglia have now become the chief miers. And when in the coarse of evolation the cerebmm and cerebellum grow, the sensory ganglia with the co-ordi- nating motor centre to which they were adjoined, lapse into mere receivers of stimuli and conveyers of impulses: the last-formed centres acquire supremacy, and those preceding them are their servants. Thus is it with kings, ministries, and legislative bodies. As the original political head, acquiring larger functions, gathers agents around him who bring data for decisions and undertake execution of them, he falls more and more into the hands of these agents — has his judgments in great degree made for him by informers and advisers, and his deputed acts modified by executive ofiicers: the ministry begins to rule throngh the original ruler. At a later stage the evolution of legis- lative bodies is followed by the subordination of ministries; who, holding their places by the support of majorities, are substantially the agents executing the wills of those majorities. And while the ministry is thus becoming less deliberative and more executive, as the monarch did pre- viously, the monarch is becoming more automatic: royal functions are performed by commission; royal speeches are but nominally such; royal assents are practically matters of form. This general truth, which our own constitutional history so well illustrates, was illustrated in another way daring the development of the Athenian institutions, poli- tical, judicial, and administrative: the older classes of functionaries survived, but fell into subordinate positions, performing duties of a comparatively routine kind.
§ 258. From the general structures of regulating systems, and from the structures of their great centres of control, we must now tarn to the appliances through which control is exercised. For co-ordinating the actions of an aggregate, individual or social, there must be not only a governing 554 THE INDUCTIONS Of SOCIOLOaT.
centre but tHere must also be media of coxmnuiucatioii tbroagli which this centre may affect the parts.
Ascending stages of animal organization carry na from types in which this requirement is scarcely at all fnlfiUed^ to types in which it is fulfilled effectually. Aggregates of yery humble orders, as Sponges, Thallaasicollce, etc., with- out co-ordinating centres of any kind, are also without means of transferring impulses from part to part; and there is no co-operation to meet an enyironing action. In Hydrossoa and Aetinozoaj not possessing visible centres of co- ordination, slow adjustments result from the diffusion of molecular changes from part to part through the body: con- traction of the whole creature presently follows rough hand- ling of tha tentacles, while contact of the tentacles with nutritiye matter causes a gradual closing of them around it. Here by the propagation of some influence among them, the parts are made to co-operate for the general good, feebly and sluggishly. In Polyzoa along with the rise of dis- tinct nerve-centres, there is a rise of distinct nerve-fibres, conveying impulses rapidly along definite lines, instead of slowly through the substance in general. Hence comes a relatively prompt co-operation of parts to deal with sudden external actions. And as these intemuncial lines multiply, becoming at the same time well adjusted in their connexions, they make possible those varied co-ordinations which devel- oped nervous centres direct. Analogous stages in social evolution are sufficiently manifest. Over a terri- tory covered by groups devoid of political organization, news of an inroad spreads from person to person, taking long to diffuse over the whole area; and the inability of the scattered mass to co-operate is involved as much by the absence of intemuncial agencies as by the absence of regul- ating centres. But along with such slight political co- ordination as combination for defence produces, there arise appliances for influencing the actions of distant allies. Even the Puegians light fires to communicate intelligence.
THX RJIGULATINa 8TSTE1C. 555 The Tasmanians^ too^ made use of signal fires; as do also the Tannese; and this method of producing a vague co-ordina- tion among the parts in certain emergencies^ is found among other uncivilized races. As we advance^ and as more definite combinations of more varied kinds* have to be effected for offence and defence^ messengers are employed. Among the Fijians^ for instance^ men are sent with news and commands^ and use certain mnemonic aids. The New Zealanders '^occa- sionally conveyed information to distant tribes during war by marks on gourds." In such comparatively advanced states as those of Ancient America^ this method of sending news was greatly developed. The Mexicans had couriers who at full speed ran six -mile stages^ and so carried intelli- gence^ it is said, even 800 miles in a day; and the Peru- vians^ besides their fire and smoke signals in time of rebellion^ had runners of the same kind. Thus what is in its early stage a slow propagation of impulses from unit to unit throughout a society^ becomes^ as we ad- vance^ a more rapid propagation along settled lines: so making quick and definitely-adjusted combinations possible. Moreover^ we must note that this part of the regulating system, like its other parts, is initiated by the necessities of co-operation against other societies. As in later times among Highland clans^ the fast runner^ bearing the fiery cross, carried a command to arm; so^ in early English times^ the messages were primarily those between rulers and their agents^ and habitually concerned military affairs. Save in these cases (and even state-messengers could not move swiftly along the bad roads of early days) the propagation of intelligence through the body politic was very slow. The slowness continued down to comparatively late periods. The death of Queen Elizabeth was not known in some parts of Devon until after the Court had gone out of mourning; and the news of the appointment of Cromwell as Protector took nineteen days to reach Bridgwater. Nor have we to remark only the tardy spread of the influences required for 556 THs iHBucnovfl or sociologt.
oo-operation of parts. The smallness and uniformity of these influences haye also to be noted in contrast with their subsequent greatness and multiformity. Instead of the courier bearing a solitary despatch^ military or political, from one ruling agent to another, at irregular intervals in few places; there come eyentnally, through despatches of multitudinous letters daily and several times a-day, in all directions through every class, swift transits of impulses, no less voluminous than varied^ all instrumental to co-opera- tion. Two other intemuncial agencies of more developed kinds are afterwards added. Out of the letter, when it had become comparatively frequent among the educated classes, there came the news-letter: at first a partially-printed sheet issued on the occurrence of an im- portant event, and having an unprinted space left for a written letter. From this^ dropping its blank part, and passing from the occasional into the periodic, came the newspaper. And the newspaper has grown in size, in multitndinousness, in variety, in frequency, until the feeble and slow waves of intelligence at long and irregular intervals, have become the powerful, regular, rapid waves by which^ twice and thrice daily^ millions of people receive throughout the kingdom