in showing itself > comes out ultimately. And then, finally, if instead of remote varieties, varieties nearly allied are united, a permanently -fertile breed results; and while the slight differences of the two kinds of physiological units are not such as to prevent harmonious co-operation, they are such as conduce to plasticity and unusually vigorous growth.
Here, then, seems a parallel to the conclusion h above, that hybrid societies are imperfectly organiaaUi cannot grow into forms completely stable; while societies that have been evolved from mixtures of nearly-allied varieties of man, can assume stable structures, and have an advantageous modifiability.
§ 263. We class societies^ then, in two ways j both SOCIAL TTP18 AKD cxisrsTrnrTiONS. 695 hayitig to be kept in mind when interpreting social plie« nomena.
Firsts thej have to be arranged in the order of their inte- gration, as simple, compound, doubly^componnd, trebly- compoond. And along with the increasing degrees of evolution implied by these ascending stagesrof composition, we haye to recognize the increasing degrees of evolution implied by growing heterogeneily, general and local.
Much less definite is the division to be made among societies according as one or other of their great systems of organs is supreme. Omitting those lowest types which show no difierentiations at all, we have but few exceptions to the rule that each society has structures for carrying on conflict with other societies and structures for carrying on sustentation; and the ratios between these admitting of all gradations, it results that no specific classification can be based on their relative developments. Nevertheless, as the militant type, characterized by predominance of the one, is framed on the principle of compulsory co-operation, while the industrial type, characterized by predominance of the other, is framed on the principle of voluntary co-operation, the two types, when severally evolved to their extreme forms, are diametrically opposed; and the contrasts between their traits are among the most important with which Sociology has to deal.
Were this the fit place, some pages might be added re- specting a possible future social type, differing as much from the industrial as this does from the militant — ^a type which, having a sustaining system more fully developed than any we know at present, will use the products of in- dustry neither for maintaining a militant organization nor exclusively for material aggrandizement; but will devote them to the carrying on of higher activities. As the contrast between the militant and the industrial types, is indicated by inverting the belief that individuals exist for the benefit of the State into the belief that the State exists for the QQ2 596 TRl INDUCnONS OF 80GI0L0OT.
benefit of indiTidoals; so tlie contrast between the indos- trial type and the type likely to be erolved from it, is indicated by the inversion of the belief that life is for work into the belief that work is for life. Bat we are here con« cemed with indactions derived from societies that have been and are, and cannot enter npon specnliitions respecting societies that may be. Merely naming as a sign, the molti- plication of institutions and appliances for intellectual and fldsthetic cnltore and for kindred activities not of a directly life-snstaining kind^ bat of a kind having gratification for their immediate purpose, I can here say no more.
Returning from this parenthetical suggestion, there re- mains the reniark that to the complications caused by the crossings of these two classifications, have to be added the complications caused by the unions of races widely unlike or little unlike; which here mix not at all, there par- tially, and in other cases wholly. Respecting these kinds of constitutions, we have considerable warrant for con- eluding that the hybrid kind, essentially unstable, admits of being organized only on the principle of compulsory tfo-operation; since units much opposed in their natures cannot work together spontaneously. While, conversely, the kind characterized by likeness in its units is relatively stable; and under fit conditions may evolve into the indus- trial type: especially if the likeness is qualified by slight differences.
CHAPTER XI.
SOCIAL METAMORPHOSB& § 264. YiBiHOATioK of the general view set forth in the last chapter^ is gained by observing the alterations of social structures that follow alterations of social activities; and here again we find analogies between social organisms and individual organisms. In both there is metamorphosis consequent on change from a wandering life to a settled life; in both there is metamorphosis consequent on change from a life exercising mainly the inner or sustaining system, to a life exercising the outer or expending system; and in both there is a reverse metamorphosis.
The young of many invertebrate creatures, annnlose and molluscous, pass through an early stage during which they move about actively. Presently comes a settling down in some fit habitat, a dwindling away of the locomotive organs and the guiding appliances they had, a growth of those other organs now needed for appropriating such food as the environment supplies, and a rapid enkrge- ment of the sustaining system. A transformation opposite in nature, is familiarized to us by the passage from larva to imago in insects. Surrounded by food, the future moth or fly develops almost exclusively its sustaining system; has but rudimentary limbs or none at all; and has proportionately imperfect senses. After growing immensely and accumulating much plastic material, it begins to un- 598 THE INDUCTIONS Of SOCIOLOGT.
fold its external organs with their appropriate regulating apparatus, wliile its organs of nutrition decrease; and it thus fits itself for active dealings with environing existences.
The one truths common to these opposite kinds of meta- morphoses^ which here concerns ns, is that the two great systems of structures for canying on outer activities and inner activities respectively, dwindle or develop according to the life which the aggregate pursues. Though in the absence of definite social types fixed by inheritance, we cannot have social metamorphoses thus definitely related to changes of life arising in definite order, analogy implies that which we have already seen reason to infer; namely, that the outer and inner structures with their regulating sys- tems, will severally increase or diminish according as the activities become more militant or more industrial.
§ 265. Before observing how metamorphoses are caused, let us observe how they are hindered. I have implied above that where it has not derived a specific structure from a line of ancestral societies leading similar lives, a society cannot undergo metamorphoses in a precise manner and order: the effects of surrounding influences predominate over the effects of inherited tendencies. Here may fitly be pointed out the converse truth, that where many societies, descend- ing one from another, have pursued like careers, there results a type so far settled in its cycle of development, ma* turity, and decay, that it resists metamorphosis.
Uncivilized tribes in general may be cited in illustration: they show little tendency to alter their social activities and structures under changed circumstances, but die out rather than adapt themselves. Even with superior varieties of men this happens; as, for example, with the wandering Arab tribes. Modem Bedouins show us a form of sociely which, so far as the evidence enables us to jndge, has remained substantially the same these 8000 years or more, spite of contact witii adjacent civilizations; and there is evidence SOCIAL XETAMOIffEOSSB. 699 tliat in some Semites the nomadic iype had^ eren in ancient times^ become so ingrained as to express itself in tlie reli- gion. Thos we have the Bechabite injunction — ^''Neither shall ye bnild honse^ nor sow com^ nor plant vineyard^ nor have any, but all year days ye shall dwell in tents; ^* and Mr. B. W. Robertson points out that — " One of the laws of the andent Nabataean confederacy made it a capital erime to sow com, to build a house, or plant a tree. « * « It was a fixed and settled principle in the nomad to reduce the country he invaded to the condition of a waste and open pasturage. ♦ ♦ * He looked upon such a course as a religious duty," Change from the migratory to the settled state^ hindered by persistence of the primitive social type^ is also otherwise hindered. Describing the Hill Tribes on the Kuladyne Biver, Arracan^ Lieut. Latter says: — "A piece of ground rarely yields more than one crop; in each successiye year other spots are in like manner chosen, till all those around the village are exhausted; a move is then made to another locality, fresh habitations are erected, and the same process gone through. These migrations occur about every third year, and they are the means by which long periods of time are calculated; thu3 a Toungtha will tell you that such and such an event occurred so many migrations since."
And this holds generally of these Indian Hill Tribes. Evidently a practice of this kind, prompted partly by the restlessness inherited from ancestral nomads, is partly due to undeveloped agriculture — to the absence of those means by which in a thickly-peopled country the soil is made permanently fertile. This intermediate state between the wandering and the stationary is common throughout Africa. It is remarked that ''society in Africa is a plant of herbaceous character, without any solid or enduring stem; rank in growth, rapid in decay, and admitting of being burned down annually without any diminution of its general productiveness.'' Beade tells us that the natives of Equa- torial Afirica are perpetually changing the sites of their villages. Similarly of the Bechuanas, Thompson says— • *^ Their towns are often so considerable as to contain many 600 THB INDUCnONfl Of flOCIOLOQY.
thousand people; and yet they are remoyable at the caprioe of the chief, like an Arab camp" And a like state of things existed in primitive Europe: families and small communities in each tribe, migrated from one part of the tribal territory to another. Thus from the temporary villages of hunters like the North American Indians, and from the temporary encampments of pastoral hordes, the transition to settled agricultural communities is very gradual: the earlier mode of life, frequently resumed, is but slowly outgrown.
When studying the social metamorphoses that follow altered social activities, we have therefore to bear in mind those resistances to change which the inherited social type offers, and also those resistances to change caused by partial continuance of old conditions. Further, we may anticipate reversion if the old conditions begin again to predominate.
§ 266. Of chief interest to us here are the transformations of the militant into the industrial and the industrial into the militant. And especially we have to note how the indus- trial type, partially developed in a few cases, retrogrades towards the militant type if international conflicts recur.
When comparing these two types we saw how the com- pulsory co-operation which military activity necessitates^ is contrasted with the voluntary co-operation which a devel- oped industrial activity necessitates; and we saw that where the coercive regulating^ system proper to the one has not become too rigid, the non-coercive regulating system proper to the other begins to show itself as industry flourishes unchecked by ipirar. The great liberalization of political arrangements which occurred among ourselves during the long peace that commenced in 18 15, furnishes an illustration. An example of this metamorphosis is supplied by Norway, too, in which country absence of war and growth of free institutions have gone together. But our attention is demanded chiefly by the proofs that resumption of belli* gerent habits re-develops the militcmt type of structure.
SOCIAL MSTAMORPHOflXS. 60) Not dwelling on the instances to be fonnd in ancient history, nor on the twice-repeated lapse of the rising Dutch Bepublic into a monarchy nnder the reactiye influences of war, nor on the reversion firom parliamentary govern- ment to despotic government which resulted from the wars of the Protectorate among ourselves, nor on the effect which a career of conquest had in changing the first French Bepublic into a military despotism; it will suffice if yf e contemplate the evidence yielded in recent years. How, since the establishment of a stronger centralized power in Germany by war, a more coercive regime has shown itself, we see in the dealings of Bismarck with the ecclesiastical powers; in the laying down by Moltke of the doctrine that both for safety from foreign attack and guardianship of order at home, it is needful that the supplies for the army should not be dependent on a parliamentary vote; and again in the measures lately taken for centralizing the State-control of German railways. In France we have as usual the chief soldier becoming the chief ruler; the maintenance, in many parts, of that state of siege which originated with the war; and the continuance by a nominally -free form of government of many restrictions upon freedom. But the kindred changes of late undergone by our own society, furnish the clearest illustrations; because the industrial type having developed here further than on the Continent, there is more scope for retrogression.
Actual wars and preparations for possible wars, have con- spired to produce these changes. In the first place, since the accession of Louis Napoleon, which initiated the change, we have had the Crimean war, the war entailed by the Indian Mutiny, the China war, and the more recent but less serious wars in Africa. In the second place, and chiefly^ there has been the re-development of military organization and feeling here, caused by re-development of them abroad. That in nations as in individuals a threatening attitude begets an attitude of defence, is a truth that needs no proof.
002 THE gDUCTIOIifl OF SOdOLOGT.
Hence among onrselres ihe recent growth of expenditnre for army and navy^ the making of fortifications^ the forma- tion of the yolanteer force^ the establiahment of permanent camps^ the repetition of antnmn manoeayres^ the bnilding of military stations throaghont the kingdom.
Of the traits accompanying this rerersion towards the militant type, we have first to note the reyival of predatory activities. Always a stractnre assumed for defensive action, available also for offensive action, tends to initiate it. As in Athens the military and naval organization developed in coping with a foreign enemy, thereafter began to exercise itself aggressively; as in Fnnce the triumphant army of the RepabUc formed to resist invasion^ forthwith became an invader; so is it habitually — so is it now with ourselves. In China, India, Polynesia, Africa, the East Indian Archi* pelago, reasons — ^never wanting to the aggressor — are given for widening our empire: without force if it may be, and with force if needful. After annexing the Fiji Islands, voluntarily ceded only because there was no practicable alternative, there comes now the proposal to take possession of Samoa. Accepting in exchange a territory subject to a treaty, we ignore the treaty and make the assertion of it a ground for war with the Ashantees. In Sherbro our agreements with native chiefs having brought about uni- versal disorder, we send a body of soldiers to suppress it, and presently will allege the necessity of extending our rule over a larger area. 80 again in Perak. A resident sent to advise becomes a resident who dictates; appoints as sultan the most plastic candidate i|i place of one pre* f erred by the chiefs; arouses resistance which becomes a plea for using force; finds usurpation of the government needful; has his proclamation torn down by a native, who is thereupon stabbed by the resident's servant; the resident is himself killed as a consequence; then (nothing being said of the murder of the native), the murder of the resident leads to outcries for vengeance, and a military SOCIAL nriMOBPHOflKS. 608 expedition establishes British rale. Be it in the slaying of Karen tribes who resist surveyors of their territoiy^ or be it in the demand made on the Chinese in pnrsnanoe of the doctrine that a British traveller^ sacred wherever he may choose to intmde^ shall have his death avenged on some one, we everywhere find pretexts for differences which lead to acquisitions. In the House of Commons and in the Press, the same spirit is shown. During the debate on the Buez-Canal purchase, our Prime Minister, referring to the possible annexation of Egypt, said that the English people, wishing the Empire to be maintained, '^ will not be alarmed even if it be increased;^' and was cheered for so saying. And recently, urging that it is time to blot out Dahomey, the weekly organ of filibustering Christianity exclaims — ''Let us take Whydah, and leave the savage to recover it.'^ And now, having observed this re-development of armed forces and revival of the predatory spirit, we may note that which chiefly concerns us — ^the return towards the militant type in our institutions generally — ^the exten- sion of centralized administration and of compulsory regula- tion. In the first place we see it within the governmental organization itself: the functions of courts-martial on naval disasters are usurped by the head of the naval department; the powers of the Indian Government are peremptorily restricted by a minister at home; and county governing bodies, seeking to put part of their county burdens on the nation at large, are simultaneously yielding up part of their powers. Military officialism everywhere tends to usurp the place of civil officialism: we have military heads of the metropolitan and provincial police; military men hold offices under the Board of Works and in the Art depart- ment; the inspectors of railways are military men; and some municipal bodies in the provinces are appointing majors and captains to minor civil offices in their gift: an inevitable result being a style of administration which asserts authority more and regards individual claims 604 THE JSDVCnOBB or 8OCIOL0OT.
less. The spirit of such a sysiem we see in ihe design and execution cf tlie Contagious Diseases Acts — ^Acte which emanated from the military and naval depart- ments^ which oTer-ride those goarantees of indiyidoal free- dom provided by constitutional formSj and which are administered by a central police not responsible to local authorities. Akin in spirit is the general sanitary dictation whichj extending for these many years, has now ended in the formation of several hundred districts officered by medical men, partly paid by the central government and nnder its supervision. Within the organization of the medical profession itself we see a congruous change: inde- pendent bodies who give diplomas are no longer to be tolerated, but there must be unification — a single standard of examination. Poor-Law administration, again, has been growing more centralized: boards of guardians having had their freedom of action gradually restricted by orders from the Local (Government Board. Moreover, while the regu- lating centres in London have been absorbing the functions of provincial regulating centres, these have in their turn been usurping those of local trading companies: in sundry towns municipal bodies have become distributors of gas and water, and now it is urged (significantly enough by a military enthusiast) that the same should be done in London. Kay, these public agencies have become builders too. The supplying of small houses having, by law-enforced cost of construction, been made unremunerative to private persons, is now in provincial towns to be undertaken by the munici- palities; and in London the Metropolitan Board having proposed that the rate-payers should spend so much to build houses for the poor in the Holbom district, the Secretary of State says they must spend more! Of like meaning is the fact that our system of telegraphs, developed as a part of the industrial organization, has become a part of the governmental organization. And then, similarly showing the tendency towards increase of govern- SOCIAL MSTAHOSPHOBSS. 605 mental stmchires at the expense of industrial stractnres^ there has been an active advocaoy of State purchase of railways — ^an adyocacy which has been for tixe present suspended only because of the national loss entailed by purchase of the telegraphs. How pervading is the influence we see in the schemes of a coercive philanthropy, which, invoking State-power to improve people's conduct, disre- gards the proofs that the restrictions on conduct enacted of old, and in lat.er times abolished as tyrannical, habitually had kindred motives. Men are to be made temperate by impediments to drinking — shall be less free than hitherto to buy and sell certain articles. Instead of extending the principle proper to the industrial type of providing quick and costless remedies for injuries, minor as well as major, which citizens inflict on oue another, legislators extend the principle of preventing them by inspection. The arrange- ments in mines, factories, ships, lodging-houses, bakehouses, down even to water-closets in private dwellings, are pre- scribed by laws carried out by officials. Not by quick and certain penalty for breach of contract is adulteration to be remedied, but by public analyzers. Benefits are not to be bought by men with the. money their efficient work brings them, which is the law of voluntary co-operation, but bene- fits are given irrespective of effort expended: without regard to their deserts, men shall have provided at the public cost, free libraries, free local museums, etc.; and from the savings of the more worthy shall be taken by the tax-gatherer means of supplying the less worthy who have not saved. Along with the tacit assumption that State-authority over citizens has no assignable limits, which is an assumption proper to the militant type, there goes an unhesitating faith in State- judgment, also proper to the militant type. Bodily welfare and mental welfare are consigned to it without the least doubt of its capacity. Having by struggles through centuries deposed a power which, for their alleged eternal good, forced on men its teachings, we invoke another power 606 THi ivDuoTtom or 800xoloqt.
to foroe iter teftoUngs on men for their alleged tetiipon^ good. The compulsion once sapposed to be juatified in religions instruction by the infidlible judgpnent of a Pope, is now supposed to be justified in secular instruction by the infallible judgment of a Parliament; and thus, under penalty of imprisonment for resistance, there is established an education bad in matter, bad in manner, bad in order.
Inevitably along with this reversion to the compulsoiy social system which accompanies the return towards the militant type of structure, there goes an appropriate change of sentiments. In essence Toryism stands for the power of the State ver8u$ the freedom of the individual; and in essence liberalism stands for the freedom of the individual versiu the power of the State. But whereas, during the previous peaceful period, individual liberty was extended by abolishing religious disabilities, establish-* ing free-trade, removing impediments from the press, etc. j since the reversion began, the party which effected these changes has vied with the opposite party in multiplying State-administrations which diminish individual liberty* How far the principles of free government have been disregarded, and how directly this^ change is sequent upon the feeling which militant action fosters, is conclusively shown by the Suez-Canal business. A step which, to say nothing of the pecuniaiy cost, committed the nation to entanglements of a serious kind, was taken by its ministry in such manner that its representative body had a nominal but no real power of reversing it; and instead of protest against this over-riding of constitutional principles, there came general applause. The excuse accepted by all was the military exigency. The prompt action of the co-ordinating centre by which ofEensive and defensive operations are directed, was said to necessitate this ignoring of Parliament and implied suspension of self-government* And the general sentiment, responding to the alleged need for keeping our hold on a conquered territory, not only BOCUL METAJfOSPflOSIB. 607 forgave but rejoiced over thia return towards military role.