IL Ifthere is no conjecture which points another away, the words are to be understood,not according to grammatical and etymological, but popular propriety, as regulated by usage. ^ That was a foolish evasion therefore of the Locrians, who, when they had sworn that they would keep their compact as long as they stood upon the earth and carried heads on their shoulders, put earth in their shoes, and heads of gar- lick on their shoulders, and then threw them away; as if they could in that way free themselves from their oath: as the story is in Polybius. There are some examples of similar bad faith in Polyzenus, which it is not necessary to trauscribe, because there is no controversy in such cases. Cicero rightly says, that such artifices do not ex- tenuate, but establish perfidy.
III. In terms of art, however, which are popularly hardly intel- Horat. Arf. Poet. v. 73.
De Offic. iii.
Cap. vii.
Paxrad. vi.
his qui not. infum.
Lib. iii. 1l. De Re Milit.
158 DE INTERPRETATIONE. [118. II.
adhibenda erit artis eujusque prudentum definitio, ut quid sit majestas, quid parricidium, quse ad finitivum. statum referunt oratori:e artis magistri. Vere enim dictum a Cicerone Acade- miearum primo: JDialecticorum. verba, nulla sunt publica, suis utuntur: et id quidem commune omnium fere est artium, Sie si in pactis de exercitu dictum fuerit, definiemus exerci- tum esse eam militum multitudinem, quz palam fines hosticos ausit invadere: nam passim opponunt historici id quod furtim fit aut latrocinantium more, et quod justo fit exercitu. Quare pro viribus hostium zestimandum, quse copize exercitum faci- ant. Cicero exercitum vocat sex legiones et auxilia. Polybius Romanum exercitum plerumque ait constitisse sexdecim milli- bus? Romanorum, viginti sociorum: at minor quoque numerus implere potest ejus nominis mensuram. Nam Ulpianus exer- citui preesse eum ait, qui vel uni legioni cum auxiliis przest; id est, ut Vegetius exponit, decem millibus peditum, duobus millibus equitum. Et Livius in octo millibus *speciem ponit justi exercitus. Pari modo de classe erit sstimandum. Sic *arx est loeus, qui arcere hostülem exercitum ad tempus possit.
possit.
3 Nimirum peditum. Sed accedebat ^ Prima Editio sola habet heic in preterea etiam Equitatus,utex sequen- ^ margine, Lib. xxv. Locus est cap. 6. tibus pater, Hist. Lib. rr. cap. 72. ^ Speciem justi exercitus fecissemus. Sed Vide et Is. Casauboni Notam in Lib. i. ^ reliquie cladis Cannensis, de quibus cap. 16. pag. 21..Ed. Amst. J. B. heic agitur, et quae Venusiam redierant, ligible, the definition of the meaning by persons learned in the Art is to be taken: as, what is Treason, what is Parricide; in which writers on Oratory refer to definitions. — As Cieero says, The words of the JDialecticians are not those of common language, but of. their own art, and the same is the case in every art. 'Thus if in pacts mention be made of an army, we shall define an Army to be a body of soldiers which openly invades an enemy's territory; for historians perpetually put in opposition what is done stealthily in the manner of robbers, and that which is done with a regular army. And therefore what numbers make an army, must be judged according to the force of the enemy. Cicero calls six legions with auxiliaries an army. Polybius says, the Roman army consisted commonly of 16,000 Romans and 20,000 allies: but a smaller number may satisfy the name. For Ulpian says, that he commands an army who commands a single legion with the auxiliaries; that is, as Vegetius explains, 10,000 foot and 2000 horse. And Livy makes the force of a regular army 8000 men. In the same way we must judge of a Fleet. So a Fort is a place strong enough to be held against the enemy for a time.
δι.
Car. XVI.] DE INTERPRETATIONE. 159 IV. 1 Conjecturis assumtis opus est, ubi verba aut ver- borum complexio sunt πολύσημα, id est, plures significationes recipiunt. Nune locum Rhetores vocant ἐξ ἀμφιβολίας" Dialectici subtilius, si in una voce sensus esse plures possent, ὁμωνυμίαν, si in complexione, ἀμφιβολίαν. Similiter conjec- iuris opus est, quoties in pactis est ἐναντιοφανεία, species quedam repugnantic. Tunc enim conjecture qusrendz sunt, quse partes alias aliis concilient, si fieri potest: nam si certa sit pugna, quod posterius inter contrahentes placuit, pri- oribus derogabit: quia uno tempore nemo contraria potuit voluisse; et ea natura est actuum qui a voluntate pendent, ut novo actu voluntatis diseedi inde possit, sive μονομερῶς ec parte una, ut in lege et testamento, sive conjunctim, ut in contractibus οὐ paetis. Hune locum Rhetores vocant εἴ avri- νομίας. Et his quidem casibus verborum evidens obscuritas cogit recurrere ad conjecturas.
2 Interdum vero ipsse conjecturze ita evidentes sunt, ut sponte se ingerant, etiam contra receptiorem verborum signi- fiatum. Hune locum Graci Rhetores vocant περὶ ῥητοῦ erant tantum quatuor millia hominum, erercitum ad tempus possit] Servius ad ut narravit supra Zistoricus, Lib. xxii. 1 ZEneidos: Arces dicte ab eo quod est cap. δά. init. J. B. arceo, quod inde hostes arcentur, hoc est € Arz est locus, qui arcere hostilem —— prohibentur. (Ad vers. 20.)
IV. 1 It is necessary to have recourse to conjectures, when the words or the connexion of the words is ambiguous, admitting of numerous significations, which the Rhetoricians call an Amphiboly*, The Dialecticians, more subtly, distinguish Jomonymy, in which these several senses are in one word, from Amphiboly, in which they are in a connexion of words. The like conjectures are necessary when there is in pacts an Znantiophany, an appearance of contradiction. For the conjectures are to be sought which may reconcile one part with another, if it may be done. For ifthe contradiction be real, the latter agreement of the contracting parties must supersede the former: because nobody ean will two opposite things at the same time: and the nature of acts which depends on the will is, that by a new act of the will they may be changed, either in one part only, as in a law, and a testament, or in several parts at the same time, as in contracts and pacts. Ilere they speak of Antinomies*. In these cases, then, the evident obscurity of the word compels us to recur to conjectures.
2 Sometimes the conjectures are so evident, that they spon- taneously suggest themselves, even contrary to the more received * Ad Herenn. r. 11, and 12; Quintil. vir. 7 and 9, Everh. ἢ loc. a subj. mater.
D. loc. cond.
Everh. in loc. ab absurd.
160 DE INTERPRETATIONE. [118. IH.
καὶ διανοίας" Latini ex scripto et sententia scripti. Loci au- tem, ex quibus voluntatis conjecturze promuntur, przcipui sunt ex materia, ex effectu, ex conjunctis.
V. [ἔχ materia, ut vox diei si triginta dierum pacetze sint inducize, non debet de diebus naturalibus, sed civilibus in- telligi: id enim materize congruit. Ita verbum donare sumitur pro transigere ex negotii qualitate. Sie armorum vox, quz modo belli instrumenta, modo milites armatos significat, pro materia aut hune aut illum in modum erit interpretanda. Ita homines qui reddere promisit, vivos non mortuos reddere de- bet, contra quam cavillati sunt Plateeenses. Et ferrum depo- nere jussi, satisfecerunt si gladium deponant, non et fibulas, *quod Pericles argutabatur: et exitus ex urbe liber intelligi debet, ita ut et iter tutum sit, contra quam fecit Alexander. Et pars dimidia navium in divisione, integrarum intelligi de- bet, non sectarum, contra quam 5Romani Antiocho fecerunt. De similibus idem esto judicium.
VI. Ex effectu, in quo przcipuum est si vox ex usu ref Ex materia] Tertullianus de Pu- dicitia: ex materia, dicti dirigendus est sermo. ldem habet libro de Hesurrec- tione Carnis. [In hoc opere leguntur verba ab Auctore adlata, nisi quod pro et seqq. ex hae regula nonnulla loca Scripture interpretari conatur Tertul- lanus; verba autem ipsa regule non reperio. 4J. B.]
5 Refert id FRoNTINvs, Strategem.
voce sensus male scripserit Sermo cap. 97. ln libroautem de Pudicitia, cap. 8.
$ Narrat illud VanEeRivus MaxiM.
signification of words. "This is the received distinction of What is said, and what is meant. The topics, from which conjectures of the mean- ing are collected, are principally, the Matter, the Effect, and the con- joined Cireumstances.
V. From the Matter; as if a truce of 30 days is made, the word Day is to be understood, not of natural days but of civil days; for that agrees with the matter: so the word donare, for giving up one's rights: so the word arms, which sometimes means the instruments of war, sometimes armed soldiers, must, according to the matter, be in- terpreted one way or the other: so he who promises to give up men, must give them up alive, not dead, as the Platzans quibbled. So when persons are to lay down their steel this is to be satisfied by laying down their swords, not their steel buckles, as Pericles inge- niously suggested; and when men are to be allowed to depart from a city, they are to do so freely and in safety, contrary to Alexander's proeeeding: so the half of the ships, is half the number of whole ships, not each ship cut in halves: as the Romans did to Antiochus. And the like cases must be judged in the same manner.
Car. XVI.] DE INTERPRETATIONE. 161 ceptiore sumta effectum post se traheret a ratione alienum. In ambigua enim voce ea potius accipienda est interpretatio, qua vitio caret. Itaque non admittenda *Brasidz cavillatio, qui pollicitus agro Poeoto se decessurum, negabat agrum Boeo- tum esse quem exercitu insideret, quasi de bellica possessione non de finibus antiquis ea vox intelligenda esset: quo sensu inanis fuerat pactio.
VII. *Conjuneta sunt aut origine, aut etiam loco. Con- juncta origine sunt, quee ex eadem voluntate proficiscuntur, etiamsi alio loco et occasione dicta, unde conjectura nascitur, quia in dubio voluntas creditur sibi fuisse consentiens. Sie apud Homerum quod dictum erat inter Paridem et Menelaum ut victori Helena cederet, ex posterioribus ita erit exponen- dum, ut victor is demum intelligatur qui alterum occiderit. Rationem reddit Plutarchus: o: δικασταὶ τῷ μηδὲν ἀμφισβη- n τήσιμον ἔχοντι προστίθενται, τὸ ἀσαφέστερον ἐάσαντες" judices accedunt ei quod minus ambiguum est, omisso eo quod. est obscurius.
Lib. vi. cap. 3. 8 4. Verum aliter 11- ἠ etiam loco] Bene Augustinus contra vIUS, XxxviII. 99. J. B. Adimantum, c. 14. Particulas quasdam 7 Non Braside, Ducis Lacedzemoni- ^ de scripturis eligunt quibus decipiant orum, sed Przconis ab Atheniensibus ^ Zmperitos, non connectentes quc supra, et missi. Inspice locum Thucydidis, in — infra scripta sunt, ex quibus voluntas et ora libri distinetius designatum. J.B. intentio scriptoris possit intelligi. (S 2. E Conjuncta sunt aut crigine, aut ^ cap.xiv. Edit. Benedictin.)
VI. From the Effect; in which the main case is, when ἃ word taken from ordinary use draws with it an absurd effect. For if the word be ambiguous, the interpretation is rather to be taken which involves πὸ absurdity. Hence the quibble of Brasidas was not to be admitted, who, having promised that he would depart from the Boco- tian territory, denied that that was Boeotian territory which he occu- pied with his army; as if the term were to be understood of warlike possessions, not of the ancient boundaries; in which sense the com- pact was unmeaning.
VII. "Things are conjoined in their origin, or in plaee. Those are conjoined in their origin which proceed from the same will, al- though uttered at a different place and time; whence a conjecture is drawn, because in doubtful cases the will is supposed to be in agreement with itself. "Thus in Homer, the agreement between Paris and Menelaus, that Helena should be given to the victor, must, from what follows, be so expounded, that he is victor who kills the other. Plutarch gives the reason, that judges take the view which is least ambiguous.
[GnoT. rr.) s L. In Ambig. D. de Leg.
Thuc. iv. 98, K«xerh. in loc. a conj. Duar. Leg.
Iliad. iii. 99, Plut. Symp.
162 DE INTERPRETATIONE. [Lrp. II. - VIII. Inter ea quz et loco conjuncta sunt, vim przci- puam habet!ratio legis, quam eum mente multi confundunt, cum unum sit ex indiciis quibus mentem venamur. Est tamen inter conjecturas haee validissima, si certo constet aliqua ra- tione tanquam causa uniea voluntatem fuisse motam; nam sepe rationes sunt plures: interdum et przeter rationem vo- luntas semet ex vilibertatis suze determinat, quod ad obliga- tionem producendam sufficit. Hoc modo *donatio ob nuptias facta vim non habebit, si nuptize secutze non sint.
IX. Ceterum sciendum est, voces multas habere signi- ficationes plures, alteram strictiorem, alteram laxiorem: quod multis ex causis evenit, aut quia specierum uni nomen generis adhzret, ut in vocibus cognationis et adoptionis, item in nomi- nibus maseulinis, quse etiam pro communibus sumi solent ubi desunt communia; aut quia usus artis latius patet quam usus popularis, ut mors in jure civili ad deportationem producitur, cum apud populum aliud significet.
h Füatio legis] Cicero pro A. Czcina: JNon alia est ratio juris in hoc genere duntazat, uirum me tuus procurator de- Jecerit, is qui legitime procurator dicitur omnium rerum ejus qui in Italia non sit, absitve reipublice causa, quasi quidam p«ne dominus, hoc est, alieni juris vica- rius: an tuus colonus, aut vicinus, aut cliens, aut libertus, aut quivis, qui illam vim dejectionemve tuo rogatu, aut tuo nomine fecerit. (Cap. 20.)
8. Exemplum istud non suo loco po- situm, quum pertineat ad superiora, δὲ certo constet aliqua ratione tamquam caussa unica, &e. Deinde ibi nihil ob- securum, nihil ambiguum; et exceptio VIII. Of things conjoined in time, that which has the greatest force, is the reason of the law, which many eonfound with the inten- tion, though in fact it is one of the indications by which we trace the intention. But among conjectures, this is the strongest, if it appear certainly that the will was moved by any reason as a sole cause; for there are often several reasons; and sometimes the will determines itself by its liberty and without regard to reason, which suffices for producing an obligation. Thus a donation made in con- templation of a marriage has no power if the marriage does not follow.
IX. But itis to be remarked, that many words have several sig- nifieations, one, stricter, one, laxer; which happens for many causes: either because the name of the genus is appropriated to one species, as in the word cognation, which, meaning any relationship, is used for one kind; and adoption, which meaning any assumption of a child, is used for one with certain formalities: and so in masculine words whieh are used as common to both genders, when common words are wanting; or because the usage of art is more wide than Car. XVI.] DE INTERPRETATIONE. 163 X. Simul notandum est, eorum qus promittuntur alia Aie. v. Resp.
esse?favorabilia, alia odiosa, alia mixta, aut media. Favora- i bilia sunt qu: zqualitatem in se habent, et quze. communem spectant utilitatem, quz quo major est atque latius patet, eo major est promissi favor, ut eorum quze ad pacem faciunt ma- jor quam ad bellum, et belli ob tuitionem suscepti major quam alüs de causis. — Odiosa sunt qu: partem alteram tantum, aut plus altera onerant, et qua poenam in se continent, et quz actus faciunt irritos, et quz de prioribus aliquid immutant. Quod si mixtum sit aliquid, ut mutans quidem priora, sed pacis causa, id pro magnitudine boni aut mutationis modo favorabile, modo odiosum censebitur, ita tamen ut, ceteris paribus, favor censeatur potior.
XI. Diserimen actuum bonze fidei et stricti Juris,!qua- Οἱ. in. won tenus ex jure est Romano, ad jus gentium non pertinet. Ρο- Za. e test tamen aliquo sensu huc aptari, ut scilicet si quibus in re- gionibus actus aliqui formam quandam habeant communem, ea manifesto sequitur ex natura ipsius rei, 9? Distinctionem illam nec satis certo J. B. fundamento niti, e£ parum utilem esse, Mors in jure civili ad deportatio- — ostendimus, post alios, in Notis nostris nem producitur] Vide Guicciardinum, | ad PurrNponr. De Jure Nat. οἱ Gent. libro xvi. ubi de pactis Caroli V. ad — $12. etseqq. Capitis huie responden- Mediolanensem ducatum pertinentibus tis, et antea indicati. J. B.
sermo. (Pag. 341. 2 4. Genevens,! Vide eumdem PurENDOnriUM, popular usage; as death, in Civil Law, includes civil death, transpor- tation for life, though it does not mean this in popular language.
X. ]t is also to be observed, that of the things which are pro- mised, some are promises of favour, others of odiwm, others mixed, others medium. Those are of favour, which are equal to both par- ties, and regard the common utility. In proportion as this is greater and more extensive, the greater is the favour included in the pro- mise; as greater, thus, in things which make for peace than for war; and greater for defensive than for other war. Those are promises of odium which lay a burthen on one party only, or on one more than another, and which impose penalties, and nullify acts, and change former promises. If any thing be mixed, as for instance, what changes former agreements, but for the sake of peace, that must be held favourable or odious as the one or the other may predomi- nate, leaning to favourable, ecteris paribus.
XI. "The distinction of acts bonc fidei and stricti juris, so far as it flows from the Roman Law, does not pertain to the Jus Gentium. Yet in a certain sense it may be adapted here: so far as this for Bart. in 1. δὲ 4s qui pro Ent. D. de Usuc. Covar. iii. 5. Tiraq. in leg. connub.
164 DE INTERPRETATIONE. [Lir. II.
quatenus immutata non est, actui inesse intelligatur: in aliis autem actibus, qui per se sunt indefiniti, qualis est, donatio, et liberalis promissio, magis stetur dictis.
XII. 1 His positis hz tenende sunt regule. In non odiosis sumenda verba secundum totam proprietatem usus po- pularis, et si plures sint, eam quae latissima est; quale est ut masculinum sumatur pro genere communi, et indefinita locutio pro universali — Sie verba hae, Unde quis dejectus est, etiam ad eum restituendum pertinebunt qui vi vetitus est ad suum accedere; nam vox laxius sumta fert eam significationem, ut recte Cicero pro A. Czcina disputat.
2 In favorabilioribus, si is qui loquitur jus intelligat, aut peritorum juris consilio utatur, verba laxius sumenda, ut etiam includant significationem artis, aut quam lex dedit. Ad sig- nifieationes autem plane improprias non recurrendum, nisi alioqui absurdum aliquid, aut pacti inutilitas sequeretur. Ex contrario verba etiam strictius quam fert proprietas sumenda erunt, si id necessarium erit ad vitandam iniquitatem vel absurditatem: at si non talis est necessitas, sed manifesta squitas vel utilitas in restrictione, subsistendum erit intra k Ad significationes autem plane im- ^ absurdum aliquid, aut pacti inutilitas proprias non recurrendum, nisi alioqui — sequeretur] Vide exemplum in 1. cum instance, that if in any place certain acts have a certain common form, that, so far as it is not changed, is understood to be inherent in the act: in other acts, more indefinite in kind, such as donative, and promise made of mere liberality, we must stand more by the words.
XII. 1 This being understood, the following rules are to be ob- served: In «on-odious promises, the words are to be taken according to the general propriety of popular usage, and if such usage is mani- fold, according to that which is widest; as that the masculine gender goes for the common gender, and an indefinite for an universal locution. So the words [in the form of the Interdict for recovering possession] Unde quis deject"s est, will apply to restore him who was not ejected, but forbidden to return to his property, as Cicero rightly argued.
2 In favourable promises, if he who speaks understands the law, or if he have had the advice of persons skilled in the law, the words are to be taken more laxly, so that they may include a technical or a legal signification. But we must not recur to significations plainly improper, except otherwise some absurdity or the inutility of the pact would follow. On the other hand, words are to be taken more strictly Car. XVI.] DE INTERPRETATIONE. 165 arctissimos terminos proprietatis, nisi circumstantie aliud suadeant.
3 In odiosis vero etiam sermo figuratus aliquantulum admittitur, quo onus vitetur. taque in donatione et juris sui remissione verba, quantumvis generalia, restringi solent ad ea, de quibus verisimiliter est cogitatum. Et in hoc rerum genere occupatum nonnunquam id demum intelligetur, quod spes sit posse retineri. Sic auxilia promissa ab una tantum parte Bar.iv. intelligentur deberi impendiis ejus qui postulabit. uc XII. 1 Illustris est quzstio, sociorum nomine veniant tantum qui erant federis tempore, an et futuri, ut in federe facto inter populum Romanum et Carthaginiensem post bellum de Sicilia: Utriusque populi socii ab w«troque populo tuti sunto. Hine Romani inferebant, etiamsi fedus cum Asdrubale ictum de Ibero amne non transeundo, nihil ipsis prodesset, quod Carthaginienses id ratum non habuissent, tamen si Car- thaginienses faetum Annibalis oppugnantis Saguntinos, quos post fedus Romani socios adsciverant, probarent, bellum indici ipsis posse tanquam federe violato. Rationes ita Livius ex- Lib.xxi. 19. ponit: Satis cautum erat Saguntinis, sociis utrorumque exceptis: nam neque additum erat iis qui tunc essent,!nec, virum, 16. C. de Fideicommissis. inter Lacedzmonios et Athenienses.
Nec, ne qui postea assumerentur] — Thuc. Lib. v. c. 18. Quod additum in pace Peloponnesiaca even than propriety requires, if that be necessary to avoid injustice or absurdity; but if the necessity be not such, but a manifest justice and utility in the restriction, we must confine ourselves within the narrowest boundaries of propriety, except cireumstanees counsel an- other course.
3 In odious promises, figurative language is in some small mea- sure admitted, to avoid the odium. "Therefore in a donation and grant of any right, words, however general, are usually restricted to that which was probably thought of. — And in this class, that is some- times spoken of as occupied, which there is hope of retaining. "Thus auxiliaries promised on one side only, are understood to be at the expense of him who asks for them.
XIII. 1 It isanoted question, whether under the title of Allies, those are included only who were so at the time of the league being made, or those who became so afterwards; as in the league between the Romans and Carthaginians after the war about Sicily: Te allies of each People shall be wnharmed by each People. Hence the Romans inferred, that though the league struck with Asdrubal, that Hist. in. 29.
166 DE INTERPRETATIONE. [Lrr. II.
ne qui postea asswumerentur: et cum assumere movos lice- ret socios, quis equum censeret, aut ob nulla quenquam merita in amicitiam recipi, aut receptos in fidem mon defendi, tantum ne Carthaginiensium socii aut sollicita- rentur ad defectionem, aut sua sponte desciscentes recipe- rentur? Quz ferme ad verbum de Polybio sumta apparet. Quid dicemus? — Quin verbum sociorum et strictam illam de iis qui erant federis tempore, et ampliorem alteram significa- tionem quz ad futuros quoque porrigitur, recipere possit salva ratione recti sermonis, dubitandum non est. Utra ergo przeferenda sit interpretatio, ex regulis ante traditis erit viden- dum: secundum quas dicimus,?futuros non comprehendi, quia agitur de federe rumpendo, quz» odiosa est materia: et de adimenda Carthaginiensibus libertate, eos qui injuriam ipsis fecisse crederentur armis cogendi; "quz libertas est naturalis, nec temere abdieata censetur.
2 Ergo Romanis adsciscere in societatem Saguntinos, aut ? Comprehenduntur etiam futuri, ut ostendimus in Notis nostris Gallicis ad hunclocum. J. B.
m Qe libertas est naturalis, nec te- mere abdicata censetur] Romani Sam- nitibus Sidicinos bello petere volentibus, petentibusque ut id per Romanos fieri lieeret, responderunt, mihil intercedi, quo minus Samniti populo pacis bellique liberum arbitrium sit. Livius, Lib. vir. c. 2. In Antiochi federe est: Si qui scciorum populi Romani uliro bellum inferrent Antiocho, vim ei arcendi jus esto: cum ne quam urbem aut belli jure teneat, aut in amicitiam accipiat. Li- vius xxxvIH. c, 28. Polybius in ex- cerpiis legationum 35. [Sidicini nequa- quam socii erant Romanorum, ut patet he should not pass the Ebro, was not available to them, because the Carthaginians had not ratified it; yet that if the Carthaginians gave their sanction to the act of Annibal who besiezed the Saguntines, who had become allies of the Romans after the treaty, war might be declared against them as having violated the treaty. Livy gives the reasons, which are taken almost word for word from Polybius.
How shall we pronounce on this point? "That the word allies may mean, in a reasonable usage, both those who were so at the time of making the treaty, and a larger signification including future allies, is indubitable. Which interpretation is to be preferred, we must con- sider, on the preceding principles: and aecording to them, we say that it does not comprehend future allies, because it treats of break- ing the league, which is a matter of odium, and of taking away the liberty of the Carthazinians, to punish with arms those who had wronged them; which is a natural liberty, not likely to be supposed abdicated.
2 Was it then not lawful for the Romans to take the Sazuntines Car. XVI] DE INTERPRETATIONE. 167 adscitos defendere non licuit? Imo vero lieuit, non ex vi federis, sed ex jure naturali, quod federe non erat abdicatum: ita ut Saguntini apud utrosque eo essent loco, quasi nihil de Sociis convenisset: quo casu nec Carthaginienses contra fedus erant facturi, si in Saguntinos arma moverent quz justa arbitrarentur, nec Romani si eos defenderent, Plane sieut Pyrrhi tempore inter Carthaginienses et homanos conve- nerat, ut si eorum populorum alter cum Pyrrho fedus faceret, ita faceret ut jus auxilia mittendi ei, quem Pyrrhus bello impeteret, salvum maneret. Non dico justum utrinque bellum esse potuisse; sed "nego pertinuisse hoc ad federis viola- tionem: quomodo in qusstione de auxilio Mamertinis misso a Romanis distinguit Polybius, an justum id fuerit, et an per fedus licuerit.
3 Et hoc ipsum est, quod Corcyrenses apud Thucydidem dicunt Atheniensibus, licere ipsis sibi auxilia mittere, nec obstare quod Athenienses habebant cum Laced:zmoniis fedus, ex fine cap. 1. przcedentis apud Livium. In fcedere autem cum Antiocho agitur tantum de jure defensionis, quod in omni pacto tacite exceptum censeri deσῶν πε καὶ Ῥωμαίων σπονδὰς, ἐπεὶ αὐτὸν εἰς ταύτας οὐδέτεροι éceypd- ψγαντο" dicebat Alamundarus rer Sara- cenorum, non violari a se que inter bet. J. B.]
» Nego perlinuisse hoc ad federis violationem] Procopius Persicorum 11. €packé τε ὡς αὐτὸς οὐ λύει vds ILep- Persas Romanosque convenerant, quan- doquidem ipse a. neutra parte conventis inscriptus esset. (Cap. 1.)
into alliance, or when allied, to defend them?. Certainly this was lawful, not in virtue of the league, but in virtue of Natural Law, which they had not abdicated by the treaty: so that the Saguntines should be in the same situation as if no convention had been made about allies: in which case the Carthaginians would not be acting against the league, if they made what they conceived to be a just war against the Saguntines; nor the Romans, if they defended them: just as at the time of Pyrrhus, an agreement was made between the Car- thaginians and Romans, that if either of those Peoples made a league with Pyrrhus, it should be lawful for the other to do so likewise, I do not say the war could have been just on both sides; but I deny that this point had to do with the violation of the league: as in the question concerning the Mamertines, Polybius distinguishes the points, whether it was just, and whether it was consistent with the league.
3 And this is exactly what the Corcyreans in Thucydides say to the Athenians, that it is lawful for them to send aid to them, and that it is not an objection, that the Athenians had a league with the Lacedz- monians, since by that league it was lawful to acquire new allies.
Polyb. Hist.
Lib. iii. 26.
Lib. iii. 7.
quando per id fedus novos socios adsciseere liceret. Atque eam sententiam secuti sunt, Athenienses postea, imperato suis, ne in Corinthios pugnarent, nisi ubi ii descendere pararent hostiliter in Corcyram, aut in aliquod solum ditionis Corey- rensium, ne scilicet. fedus rumperent. Non pugnat autem cum federe, ut quos alii offenderent, hi defenderentur ab aliis, ^manente de czetero pace. Justinus de his temporibus agens: Znducias, quas proprio momine condixerant, ec sociorum persona rumpebant, quippe quasi minus perjurii contraherent, si ferentes sociis auvilia potius quam si aperto prelio dimicassent. Sic et in oratione de Haloneso, quz inter Demosthenicas legitur, apparet pace quadam Athenien- sium eum Philippo cautum, ut qu: ea pace non comprehen- derentur Grzecis civitates liberz essent: si quis vim inferret, defendere eas in pace comprehensis liceret. Et hoc quidem exemplum est in federe zequali.
XIV. In federe inzquali ponemus alterum, si convenerit ne alter federatorum injussu alterius bellum gerere possit; quod positum fuisse in federe Ivomanorum et Carthaginiensium o» Manente de cetero pace] Sic post — Peloponnesiis servare amicitie jura.
tempora memorata Corcyrenses decre- — ['Tuvocv»p. rir. 70.]
vere, ᾿Αθηναίοις μὲν ξύμμαχοι εἶναι μετὰ 3 Immo quia sui ipsius defensio est Td ξυγκείμενα, Πελοποννησίοις δὲ $í- — jus a natura concessum, quo nemo po- λοι" Velle se Atheniensibus ex pactis test ullo pacto sese exuere. J. B. societatem armorum pr«stare, et. cum P Liberam fore Carthaginem] Dio- And this opinion the Athenians themselves afterwards followed; for they gave command to their oflüicers that they should not fight against the Corinthians, except they attacked Corcyra, or invaded its soil, in order not to break theleague. For it is not at variance with a league, that they who are attacked by one party should be defended by the other, peace remaining as to other matters. Justin says, of these events, that The treaty which they had made in their own name, they broke in the person of their allies, &c. So in the Oration on Halonesus, it appears ihat, by the peace between the Athenians and Philip, it was pro- vided that the cities of Greece, not comprehended in that treaty, should be free; and if any one attacked them, those comprehended in the peace might defend them. And this is an example in an equal league.: XIV. In an unequal league we shall suppose other terms: that it is agreed that neither of the allies shall make war without permis- sion of the other: which were the terms of the league of the Romans and Carthaginians, after the second Punic war, as mentioned above: bo Car. XVI.] DE INTERPRETATIONE. 169 post bellum Punieum seeundum, supra memoravimus; sicut et positum fuit in federe Macedonico cum Romanis, ante Perseum regem. Cum belli gerendi nomen, et ad omne bellum perti- nere possit, οὐ ad id quod infertur, non quod repellitur, in dubio arctiorem hie significatum sumemus, ne?nimium coarc- tetur libertas.
XV. Ejusdem generis est illud, quod Romani promise- rant, Pliberam fore Carthaginem: quod quanquam ex natura actus de plenissima potestate intelligi non poterat, (belli enim suscipiendi jus et alia quaedam pridem amiserant) aliquam tamen illis relinquebat libertatem, et minimum tantum, ut alieno imperio urbem sedibus transferre non tenerentur. Frus- ira ergo vocem Carthaginis urgebant Romani, dicentes civium multitudinem, *non urbem significari: (quod quanquam im- proprium concedi potest, ob attributum quod civibus magis quam urbi convenit. Nam in voce, liberam relinqui, avro- νομον, αὖ Appianus ait, manifesta erat captio.
XVI. 1 Hue et illa frequens quzestio referenda est de paetis personalibus ae realibus. Et siquidem cum populo dorus Siculus sic refert excerpto lega- tionum 27. mansura illis νόμους, χώραν, ἱερὰ, τάφους, ἐλευθερίαν" leges, regio- nem, sacra, sepulchra, libertatem.
* Ubi de Urbe aliqua sermo fit, quamauam ut multitudo Civium spectetur, tamen non sine solo et zdificiis, quie sedes sunt Populi, intelligitur. τῆς ὩΣ 5. Confer PurENDORFIUM nostrum, De Jure Nat. et Gent. Lib. ναι. cap. 9. 8 6.etseqq. J. B.
as also in the league of the Macedonians and Romans before the reign of Perseus. Since * making war" may include all kinds of war, both offensive and defensive, we must suppose this to be taken in the narrower sense, and to mean offensive war, that the liberty of tho parties be not too much restricted.
XV. Ofthe same nature is that promise of the Romans, that Car- thage should be free: which, although, from the nature of the act, it could not be understood of full sovereign power, (for they had already lost the right of making war and other rights,) yet it left some liberty to them, and at least so much, that they should not be com- pelled to remove the seat of their government by extraneous com- mand. It was in vain, then, that the Romans laid stress on the word Carthage [shall be free,] as if it meant the population, not the city; (which, though an improper expression, might be conceded, the attri- bute free belonging to the population rather than the city). For in the word, /ree, αὐτόνομον, as Appian says, there was a mere quibble.
XVI. 1 To this is to be referred that frequent question concern- Liv. xlii. 25.
L. Jur. Gent. D. de Pact.
170 pE INTERPRETATIONE. [118. II. libero actum sit, dubium non est, quin quod ei promittitur sui natura reale sit, quia subjectum est res permanens. Imo etiamsi status civitatis in regnum mutetur, manebit fedus, quia manet idem corpus, etsi mutato capite, et, ut supra diximus, imperium quod per regem exercetur non desinit im- perium esse populi. Excipiendum erit, si appareat causam fuisse propriam ei statui, ut si libere civitates libertatis tutandze causa fedus contrahant.
2 At si cum rege contractum sit, non statim personale erit censendum fedus: nam ut recte dictum est a Pedio et Ulpiano, plerumque persona pacto inseritur, non ut personale pactum fiat, sed ut demonstretur cum quo pactum factum est. Quod si adjectum sit federi ut perpetuum sit, aut factum in bonum regni aut cum ipso ef successoribus: sicut solere adjiei in federibus, kai τοῖς ἐκγόνοις, €t posteris, ait Libanius in defensione Demosthenis, aut ad tempus definitum, jam satis apparebit reale esse. — Tale videtur fuisse?fedus Romanorum r Vide Parutam libro v. et vit.
q Foedus Romanorum cum Philippo Macedonumrege| Livius Lib.xrrr. (c. 25.)
8 Quum distinctio illa sit incerta et lubrica admodum, tutius est statuere, in dubio Feedera cum Rege inita censenda esse realia, quoniam in dubio Rex intel- ligitur egisse tamquam Caput Civitatis, et ejus utilitatis caussa. Vide Celeber- rimi Tnuoxasir Jurisprudentiam Divis Fidenates] Vide Dionysium Hali- carnassensem libro rir. (c. 6.)
t Latini] De Appulis, [Immo Apio- lanis, Dio. Hartcanx. Antig. Rom. 11. 42.] et Latinis, idem eodem libro rrr. de Turno Herdonio et Latinis, idem libro 1v. (c. 46.) Ammianus libro XxvI. Perine personal and real pacts. g p 1f the transaction be with a free people, it is not doubtful that what is promised is by its nature real, because the subject (the People) is a permanent thing. state be converted into a kingdom, And even if the the league will remain, because