profert.) cum hominem occidunt: sed nec etiam ? Seneca] De Coniroversiis 111. 9.
P Δα civitatis sue lege reus est homicidii] Idem Augustinus de Libero Arbitrio libro τ. Si homicidium est ho- minem occidere, potest aliquando acci- dere sine peccato, nam et miles hostem, et judex vel minister ejus nocentem, et cui homicide isti appellari solent. Retulit Gratianus in cause xxn. questionem y. (Ex cap.4. dict. Lib.)
9? Versus Lucawi, PhAarsal. Lib. 1.
4 Contrariam defendit sententiam] Exemplum hane sequentium est apud Jorte invito atque imprudenti ielum de — Scafnaburgensem.
manu fugerit, non mihi videntur peccare certain that what is commanded is not against the precepts of. God, or if he be not certain that it is 80; the iniquity of the command maj make the king guilty, but the rule of obedience may make the soldier innocent. And elsewhere, A soldier, when he kills a man, obeying legitimate power, is not guilty of homicide. If he had done so without command, he would be liable to punishment; if he do not so under command, he is also liable to punishment. And hence the opinion is everywhere received, that so far as subjects are concerned, there may be wars which are just on both sides, that is, free from injustice. So Lucan.
4 But this matter is not without difficulties of its own. Adrian our countryman, who was the last Cisalpine Pope, defends the con- trary opinion, And it may be supported, not precisely on that ground which he adduces, but on this which is more satisfactory, that he who 452 DE CAUSIS JUSTIS UT BELLUM, ETC. [Li»s. II.
illa przecise ratione quam ille adfert, sed hae qu;e magis urget, quod qui dubitat eontemplative, debeat judicio activo eligere partem tutiorem. Est autem^ pars tutior abstinere bello. Joserh. B. Laudantur Esseni quod inter alia jurarent μὴ βλάψειν τινὰ μήτε ἐξ ἐπιτάγματος" mon mnocituros se cuiquam, me si juberentur quidem: imitatores horum Pythagorei, qui, Jam- blieho teste, bello abstinebant, causa addita, quia φόνων xo- ρηγέτης kai νομοθέτης ὁ πόλεμος, bellum cedes submi- nistrat atque 4mperat.
5 Neque obstat quod ex altera parte periculum est ino- bedientie. Nam cum utrumque incertum sit (nam si injus- tum est bellum, jam in ejus vitatione nihil est inobedientis) Bak. ii.cons. Caret, peccato, quod ex duobus minus est, Inobedientia autem 385. Sotusde, o ME in ejusmodi rebus suapte natura minus malum est quam homi- Bin rom. cidium, prsesertim multorum innocentium. Narrant veteres cum Mercurius ob. Argum interfectum accusatus Jovis man- dato se defendisset, ^non tamen ausos Deos eum absolvere.
τοῖς Sed nec Pothinum Ptolemaei satellitem Martialis, cum ait: De Vit. Pythag. $186.
Antoni tamen est pejor quam caussa Pothini; Hic facinus domino prsestitit, ille sibi.
Vie. deJwe Nec magni ponderis est quod contra nonnulli adferunt, fore elli, n.
^ Bene quidem, ubi libertas relin- ^ ei parere, cui parendum esse nulla du- quitur subditis militandi, vel non mili- ^ bitandi ratio est, quippe legitimo Impe- tandi. At vero ubi necessitas imponi- ranti. Plura diximus in Notis nostris turjussu Principis, tunc pars tutior est, ^ Gallicis. J.B.
doubts speculatively ought in practice to choose the safer side. And the safer side is, to abstain from war*. "The Essenes are praised for swearing that they would not harm anj one, even if they were commanded. And so are their imitators the Pythagoreans, who abstained from war, as Jamblichus says, adding for cause that war produces bloodshed. 5 Nor is it a sufficient objection to this, that on the other side there is the danger of disobedience. For when the right and wrong is uncertain (for if the war be unjust, there is no [moral] disobedi- ence in declining it,) then disobedience is free from sin, and this is the less of two evils. Disobedience in such a case is a less evil than homicide, and especially, than the homicide of many innocent persons. So the ancients say that the gods would not absolve Mercury for the death of Argus, though done by the command of Jupiterf. And so Martial condemns Pothinus the attendant of Ptolemy, who put him to * Barbeyrac says the safer side may be to obey: but Grotius is speaking of the danger of being morally wrong, not of danger to outward fortunes. ὙΥ. Ἵ Barbeyrac remarks, that the example is not pertinent.
ΟΡ. XXVI] DE CAUSIS JUSTIS UT BELLUM, ETC. 453 ut id si admittatur pereat sspe respubliea; quia plerunque non expediat rationes consiliorum edi populo. Ut enim hoc verum sit de causis suasoriis belli, de justificis verum non est, quas oportet claras esse et evidentes, et proinde tales quz palam exponi et possint et debeant.
6 Quod de legibus nimis forte indistincte dietum a Ter- Aro. c 4. τι tulliano est, in his legibus sive edictis de bello gerendo locum * 5. justissime habet: neque civis fideliter legi obsequitur, igno- rans quale sit quód. ulciscitur lev: nulla lex sibi soli con- scientiam justitice suc debet, sed eis a quibus obsequium evspectat. Ceterum suspecta lev est, que probari se non vult: improba autem, si non probata dominetur. Apud Papinium Achilles Ulyxi se ad bellum excitanti ait (AcAil- leid. Lib. ri. vers. 332): Qu:e Danais tanti primordia belli, Ede: libet justas hinc sumere protinus iras. Apud eundem Theseus ( Theb. xui. 648): Ite alacres, tantz?eque precor confidite causz. Propertius dixerat (Lib. rv. Eleg. vt. vers. 51, 52): Frangit et attollit vires in milite causa: Quz nisi justa subest, excutit arma pudor.
5 Nescio cujus fide hoc referat Auc- ^ brechtus, quandoquidem Jovis manda- tor: sed cuivis statim patet, exemplum. tum injustum erat, et tale a Mercurio aptum non esse, ut etiam observavit O- ^ non poterat non adgnosci. J. B.
death, as worse than Antony who commanded the act. Nor is that of much weight which is alleged on the other side; that if such a rule were adopted, the state would often be damaged, since generally it is not expedient to publish to the people the grounds of public acts. For however true this may be of the impelling causes of war, it is not true of the justificatory causes, which should be clear, and such as both may and ought to be openly expóunded.
6 What Tertullian says, somewhat indistinctly, of laws in general is very just with regard to laws or ediets for making war:.A citizen. does not obey the laws faithfully if he be ignorant at what crime the pun- ishment of the law is aimed. — The law may mot be content with its own conscience; it owes a, justification to those for whom it claims obedience..A law is suspected, which does not seek moral approbation; it is bad, if, being examined, it is not approved. So in the Achilleis of Statius, Achilles requires Ulysses to instruct him of the justice of the Greek cause. And in his TAebais, Theseus bids his followers to go forwards, con- fiding in their just cause. So Propertius had said that the soldier's courage rises and falls with his cause; and that if that be not just, his Nazar. Paneg. Constantin. c.7, ed. Cellar.
JEgid. Reg. de act. sup. disp. 31. dub.
454 DE CAUSIS JUSTIS UT BELLUM, ETC. [118. II.
Cui par illud Panegyristz:: tantum etiam inter arma, bona conscientia sibi vindicat, ut jam ceperit non virtutis magis quam integritatis esse victoria. Ac sie viri quidam eruditi interpretantur j"* quod legitur "Gen. xiv. 14, ut sensus sit, ministros Abrahami ante prelium ab ipso plene institutos de armorum suorum justitia.
7 Et sane denuntiationes, ut mox infra dicemus, palam fieri solebant et expressa causa, ut totum quasi genus huma- num de justitia cause posset cognoscere. Scilicet prudentia virtus est, ut οὐ 5 Aristoteli visum, imperantis propria: justitia vero hominis qua homo est.
8 Omnino autem sequenda videtur ea quam diximus Adriani sententia, si subditus non modo dubitet, sed argumen- tis probabilibus inductus magis in id propendeat ut bellum injustum esse putet: precipue vero si de aliis impetendis, non de suis tuendis agatur.
9 Quin probabile est, etiam carnifici qui damnatum occiτ Genesis xiv. 14] Quidam in eun- dem sensum trahunt vocem v25*3n et in- terpretantur ὦ se institutos. Herodes in oratione ad Judzos post cladem in Ara- bia, apud Josephum: βούλομαι δὲ πρῶτον μὲν ὑπὲρ TOU πολεμεῖν ὡς δι- καίως αὐτὸ ποιοῦμεν, ἐπιδεῖξαι, διὰ τὴν ὕβριν τῶν ἐναντίων ἠναγκασμένοι" μέγιστον γὰρ, εἰ μάθοιτε τοῦτο, προ- θυμίας αἴτιον ὑμῖν ἔσται" νοῖο autem ostendere vobis quam juste susceperimus hoc bellum, coacti inimicorum contume- lis. ld enim si intellexeritis, magnum vobis ad. audendum erit incitamentum. (Antiq. Jud. Lib. xv. cap. v. 8 8. divi- sion. Hudson.)
arms are blunted. And so that Panegyrist says, that conscience has 580 great ἃ power in arms, that victory depends more upon integrity than upon courage. And so some learned men interpret what is said of Abraham's arming his servants, to imply that he instructed them of the justice of his cause, Gen. xiv. 14.
7 And in fact, declarations of war used to be made, as we shall have to say hereafter, accompanied by a declaration of the cause of the war; that the whole human race, as it were, might judge of its justice. And as Aristotle says, prudence is properly the virtue of a ruler, but justice is ἃ virtue which belongs to man as man.
8 But undoubtedly the opinion of Adrian which we have men- tioned seems fit to be followed, if the subject not only doubts of the justice of the cause, but, induced by probable arguments, rather inclines to believe the war unjust: especially if the question be of attacking others, not of defense.
9 Itis also a probable opinion that an executioner who is to put a man to death, ought to know that there is ἃ cause in his deserts for doing so; either as having been aware of the trial and proofs, or Car. XXVI] DE CAUSIS JUSTIS UT BELLUM, ETC. 455 surus est, hactenus, aut quod qu:stioni et actis interfuerit, aut ex rei confessione cognita esse debere causs merita,?ut satis οἱ constet mortem ab eo commeritam: idque nonnullis in locis observatur: nec aliud spectat lex Hebrs;a, cum ad pe. xvii 7. lapidandum eum qui damnatus est testes vult przeire populo. V. 1 Quod si subditorum animis per causz expositio- nem satis nequeat fieri, omnino officium erit boni magistratus sity. in Verb. tributa ipsis potius extraordinaria imperare, quam operam circafin. militarem: prsesertim ubi non defuturi sunt alii qui militent: quorum voluntate non tantum bona, sed et mala uti potest rex justus, quomodo Deus et Diaboli et impiorum parata opera utitur; et sicut culpa caret qui egestate pressus pecu- niam sumit ab improbo fceneratore. 2 Imo etiam si de causa belli dubitari non possit, minime tamen videtur zsquum ut Christiani inviti cogantur militare, "eum a militia abstinere, etiam cum militare liceat, majoris cujusdam sit sanctitatis, quz et ἃ clericis et a peenitentibus 9$ Ἢ δὲ φρόνησις ἄρχοντος ἴδιος ^ sequentibus. Aliquot etiam carnifices ἀρετὴ μόνη. Politic. Lib. 11r. cap. iii. [cap. ii. 8 11. Stahr.]. J. B.
5 Ut satis ei constet mortem ab eo commeritam] Ideo indicta causa sacer- dotes Nobze habitantes occidere noluere Saulis ministri Doego probiores, 1. Sam.
ad Christum conversi in posterum eo munere ut periculoso abstinuere. Vide Martyrologium, et Bedam, 1. 1. cap. 7.
7 Heic et in przcedentibus non satis adcurate Auctorem nostrum ratiocinari, ostendimus in Notis nostris Gallicis.
xxii. 17. Et Achabi spiculator tertius — J. 8.
nocere Elie noluit, 11. Regum i, 13. et by the confession of the criminal. And this is observed in some places; and to this the laws of the Hebrews seem to have regard, when, in the stoning of a condemned person, it directs the witnesses to begin the execution.
V. 1 But if the minds of the subjects cannot be satisfied by tho exposition of the cause, it will by all means be the part of a good magistrate rather to impose extraordinary contributions upon them, than military service; especially as it is to be supposed that persons willing to serve as soldiers will not be wanting; whose acts, not only ifthey are morally good, but even if they are bad, a just king may use; even as God makes use of the spontaneous acts of the devil and of impious men; and as he is free from fault, who being in pecu- niary distress, takes money from a wicked usurer.
2 And even if there can be no doubt as to the justice of the war, it does not seem at all equitable that Christians who are unwilling should be eompelled to act as soldiers; when we consider that to abstain from military service, even when such service is lawful, is the course Contr. Cels.
456 DE CAUSIS JUSTIS UT BELLUM, ETC. [Lrr.II.
diu exacta est,-aliüs vero omnibus multis modis commendata. Origenes Celso Christianis objectanti militi: detrectationem sic respondet: his qui « fide alieni pro republica militare nos jubent, et homines occidere, ita, respondebimus: Hi qui simulaerorum vestrorum sunt sacerdotes, et deorum quos putatis flamines, dextras puras servant sacrificiorum ergo, ut ea incruentis et nulia, cede maculatis manibus offerant his qui creduntur dii: neque si quod emoriatur bellum sa- cerdotes asseribuntur mwumeris. Quod si id ratione mon caret, quanto magis ceteris militantibus, illi quoque suo modo censendi sunt militare, tanquam Dei sacerdotes atque cultores, qui manus quidem servant puras, sed precibus apud JDewm certant pro his qui juste mülitant, et pro eo qui juste regnat? quo in loco sacerdotes vocat quosvis Chris- tianos, exemplo sanctorum scriptorum, Apoc. i. 6; 1 Pet. ii. 5.
VI. 1 Arbitror vero evenire etiam posse, ut in bello non dubio tantum sed et manifeste injusto justa aliqua esse possit subditorum defensio. Nam cum subditos innocentes, et a belli culpa remotos, interficiendi jus verum et internum hostis, justum quamvis bellum gerens, non habeat, nisi aut ad necessariam defensionem, aut per consequentiam et extra pro- positum, (pens enim ill obnoxii non sunt) sequitur ut si certo constet hostem eo venire animo, ut hostilium subditodirected by especial holiness, such as was long exacted of ecclesias- tical persons and penitents, and strongly recommended to all others in many ways. Origen, answering the objection of Celsus to the Christians, that they declined military service, says: Z'hose who vequire this, we remind, of the priests of the heathens, who were bound to keep themselves pure from the shedding of human blood; and this ought still to be the vule for those who are all priests of God. | "They 4n their prayers to God, wrestle for them who fight justly, and for him who reigns justly: where he calls all Christians priests, following the Scriptures, VI. 1 I think however that it may happen, that in a war not doubtful, but even manifestly unjust, there may be a just defense of the subjects who take a part in it. For since the enemy, though carrying on à just war, has not a true and intrinsic right to kill innocent subjects, who have nothing to do with the fault of the wars, except either for necessary defense, or by consequence and extrinsi- cally to his purpose; (for they are not liable to punishment:) it fol- lows that if it be clear that the enemy comes with such a purpose Car. XXVL] DE CAUSIS JUSTIS UT BELLUM, ETC. 457 rum vit» parcere cum possit, omnino nolit, subditi illi tueri se possint ex jure naturz», quod gentium jure ademptum illis non est.
2 Neque tune dieemus bellum utrinque justum esse: non enim de bello, sed de certa ae definita actione qusritur. Ila autem actio, quamvis de cetero jus ad bellum habentis, injusta est, et proinde juste repellitar.
that though he could save the lives of the subjeets of his adversary, he will not; those subjects may defend themselves by the law of nature, which they are not divested of by the law of nations.
2 Nor shall we then say that the war is just on both sides; for the question is not concerning the justice of the war, but concerning a certain and definite action of the enemy. — And this action, though it be the action of a person having in other respects a right of making war, is unjust, and therefore may be justly repelled.
END OF VOLUME II.
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