XX. Solet et illud disputari, quomodo convalescere pos- sit promissio cui error causam dedit, si re cognita promissor stare velit promisso. Atque idem quzri potest de promis- sionibus, quibus lex civilis impedimentum injicit ex metu aut causa alia, si ista causa postea cessaverit Nam ad hse fir- manda quidam solum actum internum requirunt, quem con- junetum cum priore actu externo sufficere putant ad parien- dam obligationem. Alii, quibus id displicet, ideo quia actus externus non potest signum esse actus interni sequentis, re- quirunt novam verbis factam promissionem et acceptationem. Verior est media sententia, actum quidem externum requiri, sed non utique verbis factum, eum retentio rel promisss ex parte ejus cui promissa est, et relietio ejus ex parte pro- mittentis, aut simile aliquid, sufficere possint ad significandum consensum.
XXI. Hoc quoque omittendum non est, ne jura civilia long as it is not accepted by that third party: although there are not wanting, in this as in other questions, those who think otherwise. But to a person who looks rightly at the matter the natural equity will appear evident, so that it will not need many proofs.
XX. "This also is often disputed, how a promise founded in error can recover its force, if the promiser wishes to stand by his promise. And the same question may be asked concerning pro- mises, which are void by the Civil Law on account of fear or other causes, if the cause afterwards have ceased. For to confirm these, they require only an internal act, which, conjoined with the former external aet, they think sufüces to produce an obligation. Others, not satisfied with this, because an external act cannot be a sign of a subsequent internal act, require a new promise expressed and ac- cepted. The middle opinion is the true one: that an external act is required, but not expressed in words, when the retention of the thing promised by the promisee, and its relinquishment on the part of the promiser, or any similar event, may suffice to signify consent.
XXI. 'This also is not to be omitted, in order that Civil Law and Natural Law may not be coufounded; that promises which have no cause expressed, are not void by Natural Law, any more than donations of property.
Car. XI] DE PROMISSIS. 53 eum naturali jure confundantur, neque promissiones quie cau- sam expressam non habent, naturaliter esse irritas, non magis quam rerum donationes.
XXII. Neque eum qui factum alienum promisit ad id quod interest teneri, modo facere non omiserit quod ex sua $57; 5, 9. parte ad id faetum obtinendum facere poterat; nisi verba aut 50. negotii natura obligationem inducant strietiorem. — Velut per- soluta fide, inquit Livius, quim per eum mon stetisset quin prestaretur.
Lib. ii. 32.
t Quia per eum mon stetisset. quin prestaretur] Confer quis infra Lib. rrr.
XXII. Also that he who has promised an act on the part of another, is not bound to the extent of the interest of the promisee, provided he has not omitted to do what he could on his own part, to obtain the doing of the thing promised; except there be words, or the nature of the business, such as to induce a stricter obligation. As if he had performed his engagement, says Livy, because it did mot depend. on him that it was not performed.
CAPUT ΧΗ. DE CONTRACTIBUS.
I. )JDivisio actuum hwumano- fecta, sit venditio: et quam- rum qui alüs hominibus do dominium transeat. utiles sunt: ac primum in XVI. Monopolia quc sint contra simplices ac qmiatos. jus nature, aut diligend& IL —Sümplicium, in beneficos legem. meros, aut cum vwutua ob- — XVII. Pecunia, functionem. quo- ligatione: modo recipiat.
IIL {ΜῈ permutatorios: tum qui — XVIII. De. conductionis mercede dirimunt, naturaliter γι], remitten- IV. Twm qui communionem dum ob sterilitatem. et si- adferunt, miles casus: οἱ quid si V. Mictos esse principaliter, conductore primo impedito VI..Awt per accessionem. uti, ves alii locata sit?
VII. Qui actuum contractus di- XIX, Justa merces quomodo cres- cantur. cat aut minuatur.
VIII. ZZEqualitatem 4n contrac- XX. Quo jure vetitee sint usurc. tibus requiri: | Primwm, XXI. Que commoda, usurc no- circa, actus preecedaneos. mine non veniant.
IX. Ad scientiam: XXII. Legum. civilium, quc circa X. Ad libertatem volendi. hanc rem vis sit.
XL Secundo, im ipso actu, si | XXIII. Qualis estimatio facienda sit permutatorius. in contractw aversi peri- XII. Tertio, in eo, de quo agi- culi, sive assecurationis. tur: quod explicatur. XXIV. Qualis insocietate,ubi mul- XIII. Que cqualitas locum ha- tc ejus species explicantur. beat in actibus mere aut — XXV. De societate navali. partim beneficis. XXVI. Jure. gentium. incequalita- XIV. Quomodo estimandwm vei iem, in quam consenswm, pretium, 4n. venditione: et est, quoad, actus exteriores ex quibus causis juste cres- non attendi: et quo sensu cat aut minuatur. id naturale dicatur.
XV. Quando maturaliter | per- I. CTUUM humanorum, qui ad aliorum hominum utili- tatem tendunt, alii sunt simplices, alii compositi. II.?^Simpliees ali benefici, alii permutatori. Benefici à Simplices alii benefici, alii permu- —— hcec πράσεως nomine comprehendit. tatorii] Aristoteles illa omnia δόσεως, ^ [Locus est Khetor. Lib. 1. c.5. p. 528 5.
CnuarrER XII. Of Contracts.
I. Of human acts which tend to the utility of others, some are simple, some are compound.
Car. XII.] DE CONTRACTIBUS. 55 aut meri, aut cum mutua quadam obligatione. —Benefici meri, aut in presens absolvuntur, aut in futurum prominent. In praesens absolvitur factum utile, do quo nihil loqui necesse est, quando utilitatem quidem parit, sed nullum juris effectum: item donatio, qua dominium transfertur, qua de re egimus supra cum de dominii acquisitionibus ageretur. n futurum prominent promissiones tum dandi, tum faciendi, de quibus jamjam egimus. DBenefici actus cum obligatione mutua sunt, qui aut de re disponunt sine alienatione, aut de facto ita ut aliquis effectus supersit. Talis est circa rem usus concessio, qui commodatio dieitur: in factis prsstatio operze sumtuosze, aut obligatorie, quae dicitur mandatum, cujus species est de- positum, przestatio scilicet, opere in re custodienda. His autem actibus similes sunt actuum promissiones, nisi quod, ut diximus, hz; in futurum prominent: quod et de actibus jam explicandis intellectum volumus.
IIT. 1 Actus permutatorii aut dirimunt partes, aut com- munionem adferunt. Actus eos qui diremtorii sunt, recte di- Tom. τι. Edit. Paris. Sed agitur ibi ^ autem de omnibus Contractibus. J.J.] de Alienatione, 'AzaAAoTpíwcis, non II. Of simple acts, some are gratuitously beneficial, others are of the nature of exchange of one act for another, permutatorial. DBeneficial acts are either merely so, or with some mutual obligation. Mere bene- ficial acts are either discharged in the present time, or stand over for the future. A useful good office is performed in the present time, and of this it is not necessary to speak, since it produces advantage indeed by the recipient, but no effect as of right: so also a donation, by which ownership is transferred, of which we treated above, when we spoke of acquisitions of ownership. As acts standing over for the future, we reckon promises both of giving and of doing; concerning which we have already spoken.
Beneficial acts with a mutual obligation, are those which dispose of any thing without alienation, or so dispose of an act that some effect survives. Such is a concession of the use of a thing, which is called a Loan; and of acts, the undertaking of an office expensive or obligatory, which we may call a Commission; of which kind is a Deposit, namely, the office of keeping a thing in custody. Similar to these acts are the promises of acts, except that, as we have said, these stand over for the future; which also we desire to have understood of the acts now to be explained.
IIL 1 Permutatorial acts either separate the parties or produce a community between them, 'Those acts which separate, diremtorial Leg. 5. princ.
vidunt jurisconsulti Romani in do ut des, facio ut facias, facio ut des: de quibus videri potest Paulus jurisconsultus in ]. Naturalis: Digestis, Proscriptis verbis.
2 Sed Romani ab hae divisione eximunt quosdam con- traetus, quos ipsi nominatos vocant, non tam quod proprium habeant nomen (habet enim hoc et permutatio, quam a nomi- natorum numero excludunt) quam quod ob usum frequen- tiorem "vim quamdam et naturam accepissent talem, quze eti- amsi nihil esset, dictum specialiter, ex ipso nomine satis posset intelligi: unde etiam certz de illis prodit? erant actionum formule: cum in exteris contractibus minus frequentibus hoc tantum inesset, quod dietum erat, ac proinde non communis aliqua et usitata, sed accommodata ad ipsum faetum daretur formula, qua ideo prescriptis verbis dieebatur. Ob eandem causam usus frequentioris in conventionibus nominatis, si requib Vim quandam et naturam accepis- sent talem] Vide Vasq. Lib. 1. controv. c. x. in fine.
c Si de pretio convenisset] Apud He- brzos perfecta non censetur venditio, ante traditionem veram vel imaginariam. [Vide SzrpEN. De Jure Nat. et Gent.
citus de Germania, (Germ. c. 5): In- leriores simplicius et antiquius permu- tatione mercium utuntur. Servius, ad Eclogam 1v. ad illud (vers. 39): Muta- bunt merces: quia antiqui res rebus mu- tabant. Et ad illud Georg. 11r. (vers. 907): Vellera mutentur: ingenti pretio comparentur. Nam apud majores om- ne mercimonium permutatione constabat, quod et Caius Homerico confirmavit ecemplo. Plinius, libro xxxi. c. 1: Secund. discip. Hebr. Lib. vt. e. 5.]
4 Simplicior est et antiquior] Ap- paret id ex Homeri versibus productis Lib. τ. D. de Contrahenda Emtione. 'Taacts, the Roman jurists rightly divide into these: do u£ des: facio ut facias: facio ut des. See Paulus and the Digests. [Dig. xix. 5.]
2 But the Romans except from this division certain contracts which they call nominate contracts*; not 50 much because they have proper names, (for permutation or exchange, which they exclude from nominate contracts, has also a proper name,) às because, from their more frequent use, they have received a certain force and nature, which may be sufficiently understood by the name, although nothing be said specially. Whence also with regard to them there were certain established formulze of actions. While in other contracts, which are less frequent, that only was implied which was expressed; and there- fore there was not any common and usual form of action, but a form accommodated to the fact, which was therefore called a form in pre- script words.
For the same reason, of a more frequent use in the nominate contracts, if certain requisites were present, the necessity of fulfilling Car. XII.] DE CONTRACTIBUS. 57 sita quedam adessent, ut in venditione ^si de pretio conve- nisset, etiam re integra, id est antequam a partium altera prostitum esset aliquid, injungebatur implendi necessitas: cum in illis rarioribus re integra daretur peenitendi libertas, id est impunitas, quia lex civilis vim eoaetricem subtrahebat illis conventionibus, ut sola contrahentium fide starent.
3 At jus natur: ignorat hzc discrimina: neque vero qui innominati ab illis dicuntur contractus, aut minus sunt natu- rales, aut minus antiqui: imo permutatio, quz» innominatis accensetur, emtione et "simplicior est et antiquior. Εὖ Eus- tathius ad Iliados x. ubi de certamine publico agitur, cui prze- mium constitutum est, quod apud Homerum est ἄρνυσθαι, interpretatur ἀντικαταλλάττεσθαι, | addens συνάλλαγμα γάρ τι καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα" nimirum facio ut des. Nos ergo naturam sequentes, contractus omnes diremtorios, nullo nomi- Quantum feliciore evo, cum res ipse per- mulabantur inter se, sicut. et Trojanis temporibus füctitatum | Homero | credi convenit. Libro sexto, cap. xxir. de Se- ribus: Fluminis ulteriore ripa merces propositas juxta. venalia tolli ab his si placeat permutatio. Mela de iisdem (Lib. irr. c. 7. n. 10. Ed. Voss.): Seres intersunt, genus plenum justitie ex com- mercio, quod rebus in solitudine relictis absens peragit. De iisdem Ammianus, libro xxirr. (Cap. νι. p. 43. Ed. Vales. Gron.): Cum ad coémenda fila vel que- dam alia fluvium íransierunt advene, nulla sermonum vice, propositarum re- rum pretia solis oculis estimantur. Mela de Sarmatis, (Immo de Satarchis, τι. τ. 95]: Vice rerum commercia exercent. De Colchis vide Busbequium Epistola Ez- oticarum 11. (Pag. 205..Ed. Elzev. 1660.) de Lapponibus, Olaum Magnum, libro 1v. c. 5.
the contract was held as the rule; as in sale if the price had been agreed upon, the contract was good, even ve integrá, that is, though nothing had been performed on either side: while in the rarer con- tracts, re integrá, there was allowed the liberty of retracting, that is, impunity, because the Civil Law withheld coactive force from those contracts, leaving them to stand on the good faith of the contracting parties only.
3 Natural Law does not recognize these distinctions: for the contracts which are called by men innominate, are neither less natural nor less ancient than the nominate. Nay Exchange, which is reckoned among the innominate, is both older and simpler than buying. Eus- tathius, where in the Z/iad (B. x.) a publie contest is mentioned with a prize appointed, which in Homer is said to be ecerned, inter- prets it, taken in exchange, adding, for it is a sort of. contract; namely, J'acio ut des, I work that you may pay. We therefore, following nature, shall refer all diremtory contracts to the three kinds which we have mentioned, making no distinction of nominate and inno- minate.
Arist. Elh. v. D. de Cont.
58 DE CONTRACTIBUS. [Lir. II.
natorum aut innominatorum discrimine, ad tria qus diximus genera revocabimus.
4 Dicemus proinde dari ut detur, statim quidem rem pro re, ut in ea, qu: specialiter dicitur permutatio, antiquissimum haud dubie commercii genus: aut ^pecuniam pro pecunia, quod collybum Grseci vocant, mercatores hodie cambium: “αὖ rem pro pecunia, ut in emptione ac venditione: aut usum rei pro re: aut usum rei pro usu rei: auf usum rei pro pecunia, quod postremum locatio conductio dicitur. Usus autem no- mine hic intelligimus tum nudum usum, tum eum qui cum fructu conjunctus est, sive is sit temporarius, sive personalis, sive hereditarius, sive alio quovis modo circumscriptus, ut apud Hebrzeos is qui durabat ad annum Jubileum. Datur vero, ut interposito tempore tantundem, et genere idem detur, in mutuo, quod locum habet in his, qu» pondere, numero, mensura constant, tam rebus aliis, quam pecunia.
5 Facti cum facto permutatio innumeras habere potest species pro factorum diversitate. At facio ut des, aut pecu- niam; (atque id quoque in factis quotidianz utilitatis locatio conductio dicitur, in facto preestandae indemnitatis cirea casus e Pecuniam pro pecunia] De eo vide — Italia mercis loco. Plinius libro x xxr. Procopium Arcana Historia. (cap. 25). ^ c. 3. Nummus Illyrico advectus quondam in! Verius est, heic esse meram Em- 4 Hence we shall say that do ut des, 1 give that yow may give, either one thing for another, which is specially called Permutation or Exchange, and is doubtless the oldest kind of commerce: or money for money, to which the merchants give the technical name of Exchange: (Cambiwm:) or a thing for money, as in Buying and Selling: or the use of a thing for a thing; or the use of a thing for the use of a thing: or the use of a thing for money, which is Letting and Hiring. By «se, we here mean both the naked use, and that which is com- bined with the enjoyment of the produce, whether temporary, or personal, or hereditary, or circumscribed in any other way; as that which among the Hebrews continued to the year of the Jubilee. In a Loan, the thing is given, in order that after the lapse of a certain time, the same in quantity and kind may be returned, of things which are estimated in weight, measure, and number, both other things and money.
5 'The exchange of act for act may have innumerable kinds according to the diversity of the acts. Dut facio wt des, is, 1 act that yov maj give, either money, (and this includes Letting and Hiring, and Assurance against risk, a conítract formerly hardly Car. XII.] DE CONTRACTIBUS. 59 fortuitos aversio periculi, vulgo assecuratio, qui contractus olim vix cognitus nune est inter receptissimos;) aut ut des rem, aut usum rei, IV. Actus autem communieatorii aut facta communicant, aut res, aut hinc res, inde facta ad utilitatem communem, quz omnia veniunt societatis nomine: in quo genere comprehendi- tur et belliea societas, qualis illa apud nos frequens navium privatarum coitio adversus piratas, aut alios invasores, quam vulgo Admiralitatem nuncupant, Grzci σύμπλοιαν aut opo- πλοιαν vocabant.
V. Mixti autem actus sunt, aut principaliter, aut per ac- cessionem alterius. Sie si sciens rem majoris emam, et quod plus est in pretio alteri condonem, partim donatio erit, partim emtio: si fabro pecuniam promittam, ut de suo auro mihi annulos faciat, partim emtio erit, partim conductio. Sic et in societate accidit, ut alter factum et pecuniam, alter pecu- niam tantum contribuat. Et in feudali contractu rei feudalis concessio beneficium est, pactio autem militaris operz pro tu- tela, est facio ut facias. Quod si onus pensionis accedat, eatenus miscetur cum emphyteusi. Feonus quoque nauticum mixtum quid est ex contractu mutui, et periculi aversi.
tionem venditionem: quz? sententiatan- — S4. Znst, De Locat. Conduct. J. B. dem przvaluit apud JCtos veteres. Vide known, now among the most common,) or that you may give a thing, or the use of a thing.
IV. Acts communicatory, either establish a community of acts, or of property, or property on the one side, acts on the other for the common utility; all which are called Partnership. In which class are included associations for the mutual Protection of ships in time of war, against pirates or other enemies, which is called «a Admiralty.
V. Acts are mixed (or compound, $ 1) either as principal, or by the accession of another act. [First as principal.] Thus if I know- ingly buy a thing for more than it is worth, and give the seller the excess of price, it is partly buying, partly donation. If I promise money to a goldsmith for making rings for me of his own gold, it is partly buying (of material), partly hire (of labour). So in Partner- ships it happens that one person contributes acts and money, ano- ther money only. And in the Feudal Contract, the concession of the fief is a benefice, but the pact of military service for protection is J'ücio ut facias. And if the fief be burthened with an annual pay- D. de Verb. Signif.
Act. Emt. et Vend.
60 DE CONTRACTIBUS. [118. II.
VI. Per accessionem ad alterum actum fit mixtio, ut in fidejussione et pignoris datione.?Nam fidejussio, si negotium spectes quod inter fidejussorem et principalem debitorem geri- tur, plerumque mandatum est: sin negotium quod inter cre- ditorem et fidejussorem, qui nihil recipit, geritur, videtur actus mere liberalis: sed quia contractibus onerosis accedit, inde censeri solet. Pignoris quoque datio per se videtur actus li- beralis, qua detentio rei conceditur: sed hzc quoque naturam trahit ex contractu, cui securitatem prestat.
VII. Omnes autem actus alis utiles, extra mere benefi- cos, contractuum nomine appellantur.
VIII. In contractibus natura szequalitatem imperat, et itaà quidem, ut ex insqualitate jus oriatur minus habenti. ? Haec:equalitas partim consistit in actibus, partim in eo de quo agitur, et in actibus, tum przecedaneis, tum principalibus.
IX. 1 Ad przcedaneos actus pertinet, quod is qui cum aliquo contrahit fvitia sibi nota rei de qua agitur significare debet: quod non civilibus tantum legibus constitui solet, sed nature quoque actus congruit. Nam inter contrahentes pro- * Nulla est heie vera mixtio actuum, — J. B.
Vide PvrzNponr. 2e Jure Nat. et Gent. f Vitia sibi ποία] Vide Scholiasten Lib. v. cap. 2. 810. J. B. adillud Horatii (11. Sat. 111. 285): ? Confer, in toto isto argumento, mentem nisi litigiosus eumdem PurENDpomnr. Lib. v. cap. 3. Exciperet dominus.
ment, it is, so far, a letting for a money-rent. So money lent to shipowners is partly a Loan and partly Insurance.
VI. Acts are mixed by the accession of another act, as in giving security, and in pledge. For suretiship, if you regard the business which takes place between the surety-giver and the principal debtor, is for the most part a commission: if you regard the business be- tween the creditor and the surety-giver, who receives nothing, it is an act merely liberal: but because this liberal act is added to an onerose contract, it is reckoned with such contracts. So the giving of a pledge seems to be a liberal act, by which the detention of a thing is conceded; but this also takes its nature from the contract which is thus supplied with a security.
VII. All aets useful to others, with the exception of merely beneficial acts, are called Contracts.
VIII. In Contracts, nature requires equality, and in such a way that, from inequality, he who has the worse share, acquires a right. This equality consists partly in the act, partly in the matter concern- ing which the act is, and in the acts both precedent and principal.
IX. 1 It belongs to the preceding acts, that he who makes a Car. XII] DE CONTRACTIBUS. 61 pior quzdam est societas quam quze communis est hominum. Atque hoe modo solvitur quod dicebat Diogenes Dabylonius hoc tractans argumentum, non celari omnia quz tacentur: nee quidquid tibi audire utile est idem mihi dicere necesse esse, ut de rebus eclestibus, nam?eontraetus natura utilitatis causa reperta propius quiddam exigit. Dene Ambrosius: Zn con- tractibus etiam vitia eorum. qua veneunt prodi jubentur, ac nisi intimaverit venditor, quamvis in jus emtoris transcrip- serit, doli actione vacuantur. | Lactantius dixerat: Qué ven- dentis errorem non redarguit, ut aurum parvo emat, aut qui non profitetur fugitivum servum, vel pestilentem se domum vendere, lucro et commodo suo consulens, non est ille sapiens, ut Carneades videri volebat, sed callidus et astutus.
2 At non idem dicendum est de his quz: rem non contin- gunt: ut si quis sciat multas naves in cursu esse qu: frumen- ium advehunt: nam tale quid indicare est quidem officiosum ae laudabile, ssepe adeo ut omitti nequeat, nisi caritatis regula violetur; non tamen injustum, id est, non pugnans cum jure ejus, quieum negotium est: ita ut locum hie habere possit € Contractus natura utilitatis causa — augere, nec incommodorum cognitionem reperta propius quiddam exigit] Vale- ^ obscurare oportet. Agitur ibi de zedibus rius Maximus Lib. vin. c. ii. n. 1. bong —— diruijussis ab auguribus, quod emtorem Jidei venditorem, nec commodorum spem venditor celaverat.
contract about any thing, ought to make known the faults of the thing so far as he knows them, which is not only the usual rule of Civil Laws, but also agreeable to the nature of the act. For be- tween the contracting parties, there is a connexion closer than the common society of mankind. And in this way we answer the argu- ment of Diogenes of Babylon on this subject, who says that all that is untold is not therefore concealed: and that it is not. necessary for me to say all that it is useful for you to hear: thus I need not tell you how the heavens move. For the nature of Contract, having for its object common utility, requires some closer union. So Ambrose and Lactantius. [See.]
2 "The same does not apply to circumstances which do not affect the thing itself: as if any one know that there are many ships on their way bringing corn. ΤῸ tell this is kind and laudable; often so far, that it cannot be omitted without violating the rule of charity: but the omission is not unjust; that is, it is not repugnant to the right of him with whom I deal: so that here that may hold which the same Diogenes said, as Cicero reports ἢ, 7 bring my wares to market: I offer Cie. de Offic.
Cie. de Offic.
Offic. iii, 10 de /Edil. ed. Covar. ad c. n. 6. d. loco.
Cap. 13. ibid.
Act. Emt. et Vend. in fin.
II.
62 DE CONTRACTIBUS. [1.8. II.
illud, quod idem ille Diogenes non incommode dicebat, refe- rente M. Tullio: Adveai, exposui: vendo meum, non pluris quai ceteri: fortasse etiam, minoris cum. major est copia: cui fit injuria?. Non ergo generaliter sequendum illud ejus- dem Ciceronis, celare esse, cum tu quod scias, id ignorare emolumenti tui causa velis eos quorum intersit scire: sed tum demum id locum habet, cum de iis agitur quz» rem subjectam per se contingunt, ut si domus sit pestilens, si a magistratu dejici jussa, 4185 exempla ibidem videas.
3 At vitia ei quicum agas nota, ut servitutem:zedium quas M. Marius Gratidianus C. Sergio Orat: vendebat ab ipso prius emtas, diei nihil attinet: "scientia enim utrinque par pares facit contrahentes. Horatius (1t. Epist. τι. 19): Ille feret pretium poenz;e securus, opinor: Prudens emisti vitiosum. Quod notatum et Platoni undecimo de Legibus.
X. Neque vero tantum in intellectu rerum, sed et in voluntatis usu quzedam contrahentibus inter se zequalitas debe- tur: non quidem ut si quis antecessit metus juste incussus, 15 demi debeat; id enim contractui extrinsecum est: sed nequis h Scientia utrinque par, pares facit. nibus Edd. manifesto deest, ut patet ex contrahentes] Edictum "'Pheuderici, c. ^ serie orationis, et oppositione τοῦ metus 141. juste incussus. Vocabulum, ob similitu- ^ Addidi vocem Znjuste, quee in om- — dinem sequentis Zncutiatur, a 'Typograthem for sale: I sell what is my own: mot dearer tham others; perhaps cheaper, as I have a larger stock. W'hom do I wrong? "Therefore we are not in general to follow the rule which Cicero lays down, that it is concealment, if those whose interest it is to know anything, you would have ignorant of it for the sake of your gain. "That holds with regard only to points which affect the thing itself: as if a house which is to be sold is unhealthy; if it has been ordered by the ma-: gistrate to be pulled down: where see the examples which he gives.
3 The faults which are known to the person with whom you deal, need not be mentioned; as the servitude to which the house was sub- ject which Gratidianus sold to Oratas, having bought it of him before: for both parties, having equal knowledge, are on an equality. 850 Horace; Plato.
X. Noris it only in the understanding with respect to the matter, but also in the use of the will, that there ought to be a certain equality between the contracting parties: not indeed that if there have gone before any fear justly impressed, that must be removed, for that is extrinsie to the contract: but that no fear is to be un- Car. XII.] DE CONTRACTIBUS. 63 injuste *incutiatur contrahendi causa, aut si incussus est, ut dematur. loc spectantes Lacedaemonii resciderunt emtionem agri, quam Elei possessoribus metu expresserant, γνόντες μηδὲν δικαιότερον εἶναι, βίᾳ πριαμένους ἢ βίᾳ ἀφελομένους, παρὰ τῶν ἡττόνων λαμβάνειν" Arbitrati nihilo justius. esse, infirmioribus per emtionis titulum, quam vi mera rem extor- quere, qu:& Xenophontis verba sunt. Quod tamen quam ex- ceptionem ex jure gentium habeat, suo loco videbimus.
XI. 1 In ipso actu principali hzee desideratur sequalitas, ne plus exigatur quam par est. Quod in contractibus bene- fieis locum vix potest habere. Nam si quis pro commodato, aut opera in mandato aut deposito exhibenda, aliquid merce- dulze stipuletur, non injuriam faclet, sed contractum miscebit, id est ex gratuito efficiet semipermutatorium. At in permuta- torüs omnibus sollicite id observandum est: nec est quod di- cat quispiam, id quod pars altera amplius promittit, donatum censeri, Neque enim solet hie esse tales contractus ineuntium animus, nec presumendus est nisi appareat. Quod enim pro- mittunt aut dant, credendi sunt promittere aut dare tanquam dequale ei quod accepturi sunt, utque ejus s:qualitatis ratione debitum. phis omissum, non animadvertit Auctor — sum, simili incuria, videbimus, cap. xx.
ipse; unde nil mirum si fugerit Edito- ^ hujus Libri, S 40, sub finem, J. B. res, Contrarium τὸ jusie alibi omisjustly impressed with a view to the contract; or if it be impressed, that it be put away. Looking at this rule, the Lacedzemonians re- scinded the purchase of the land which the Thebans had extorted from the possessors by fear. See Xenophon. What exception there is to this in the Law of Nations, we shall see in its own place.
ΧΙ. 1 In the principal act of a contract this equality is required, that more be not demanded than is equitable. Which, in beneficial contracts, can hardly have place. For if any one demands some payment for a loan, or for executing a commission, or keeping a de- posit, he does no wrong, but he alters the nature of the contract, and makes it, from being gratuitous, become semipermutatory. But in all permutatory contracts this is carefully to be observed. Nor is it enough for any one to say that what the other party has promised more than equality, is to be regarded as ἃ donation. For such is not the intention of contracting parties, and is not to be presumed so, except it appear. For what they promise or give, they are to be supposed to promise or give as equivalent to what they are to receive, and as what is done on the ground of such equivalence, Hist. Gr. iii.
Inst. de Mand. ὃ ult. quis Serv. 9, D. Depos.
In Joan. Hom. Ix. "Tom. ii. p.
64 DE CONTRACTIBUS. [Lis. 11.
2 Joh. Chrysostomus: ὅταν “γὰρ ἐν τοῖς συμβολαίοις καὶ ἡνίκα δ᾽ ἂν ἀγοράσαι δέῃ τι ἢ καὶ ἀποδόσθαι, φιλονεικώ- μεν καὶ βιαζώμεθα ἔλαττον τῆς ἀξίας καταλαβεῖν καὶ πάντα ὑπὲρ πούτου ποιῶμεν, OU λῃστεία τὸ πρᾶγμα ἐστίν" Quoties enim in contractibus, et quoties emendum quid. aut dependen- dum est, contendimus, omnique modo laboramus ut minus equo pretio demus; ^nonne huic facto quoddam inest furtum? Seriptor vitze Isidori apud Photium, Hermiam marrat, ubi quod emere vellet justo forte minoris esset indicatum, adjecisse quod justo pretio deerat, quod existimaret aliter agere injus- titi; esse speciem, sed talis quze plurimos lateret. Et in hune sensum interpretantur Hebrzi legem, quz est 'Levit. xxv.
XII. 1 Restat squalitas in eo de quo agitur, in hoc consistens, ut etiamsi nec celatum quiequam sit quod dictum oportuit, nec plus exactum quam deberi putabatur, si in re tamen deprehendatur inzequalitas, quamquam sine culpa par- tium, puta quod vitium latebat, aut de pretio errabatur, ea quoque sit resarcienda, et demendum ei qui plus habet, red- dendumque minus habenti: quia in contractu id utrimque pro- positum aut fuit, aut esse debuit, ut uterque tantundem ha- berent.
5 Sententiam istam, ut nimis rigi- rior, obiter observavit v. Cl. Aw. dam, improbat, simulque ab Auctore — ScnurriNGius, Sermon. Academic. De nostro male ληστείαν verti furtum, que — angusta, innocentia, Hominis ad. Legem vox significat latrocinium, adeoque du- ^ boni, pag. 38.
2 Authorities of Chrysostom, Hermias, Levit. xxv. 14 and 17. XII. 1 There remains to be considered, equality in the thing itself, consisting in this, that though nothing was concealed which ought to have been told, nor more exacted than was thought to be due; yet if there be an inequality in the thing itself, though without any fault of the parties; if for instance there was some latent defect, or some error about the price, that also is to be made good, and the difference paid to him who suffers by it; because, in a contract, there was intended, or ought to have been, that each party should have the same value.
2 The Roman law appointed this as the rule, not in every ine- quality, (for the law does not follow matters to their smallest dimen- sions, and also wishes to obviate the multitude of lawsuits,) but in a grave inequality, as for instance, one which exceeds the half of the fair price. In fact, laws, as Cicero says, remove what is not equitable, in cases when you can take hold of it with your hand; the philosophers, so dm Car. XII.] DE CONTRACTIBUS. 65 2 Lex Romana hoc constituit non in quavis inzqualitate, minima enim non persequitur, imo et occurrendum censet mul- titudini litium, sed in satis gravi, ut quze dimidium justi pretii excedit. Nimirum leges, ut ait Cicero, iniqua tollunt quate- D.» nus teneri manu possunt, philosophi quatenus ratione et intel- ligentia. Hi vero qui legibus civilibus subjecti non sunt, id sequi debent quod zequum esse ipsis ratio recta dictat: imo et ili qui legibus subjecti sunt, quoties de eo quod fas piumque est agitur, si modo leges non jus dant aut tollunt, sed juri duntaxat ob certas causas auxilium suum denegant.
XIIL 1 Sed notandum est, quandam rei zqualitatem spectari et in contractibus beneficis, non quidem omnimodam ut in commutatoriis, sed ex suppositione ejus quod agitur, ne quis seilicet ex beneficio damnum sentiat: ob quam rationem mandatarius indemnis prsstari debet a sumtibus factis, et damno in quod ex causa rei mandats incidit: et commoda- syivest. in tarius rem tenetur resarcire 851 perut, quia non solius rei ra- Ρ. 1- n7.
tione domino tenetur, id est, ex vi dominii, quomodo quivis Gat possessor teneretur, ut supra didicimus, sed et ratione beneficze acceptionis: *quod ita verum est, nisi omnino et apud domi- num fuisset peritura. Hoc enim casu nihil per commodatum domino abest. Contra depositarius przeter fidelitatem | nihil Levitici xxv. 14, 17.] Vide Mosem — apud dominum fuisset periturum] Lex de Kotzi, prz:cepto jubente nxxxit. Wisigotthorum Lib v. tit. v, c. 1, 2, 3. k Quod ita verum est, nisi omnino et far as you can grasp it by reason and intelligence. But those who are not subject to Civil Laws ought to follow that which right reason dictates to them as equitable; and even those who are subject to laws, whenever the question is what is right and pious; since the laws do not create or destroy right, but only deny their support to some rights for certain causes.
XIII 1 It is to be noted that a certain equality of matter is to be regarded even in beneficial contracts; not a complete equality, as in commutatorial, but one according to the nature of the transaction: 50 that a person may not be damaged by a benefit which he bestows: for which reason a commissioner or agent is to be indemnified for the expense and loss which he incurs by his agency: and a /oamnee is bound to make good the thing lent if it be destroyed; because he is bound to the owner, not in respect to the thing alone, that is, by virtue of ownership, as any possessor of it would be bound, (as above said,) but also in virtue of the benefit received: which holds true, except the thing would have perished also, if it had remained with 5 [GRoT. rr.]
vii. de Benef.
66 DE CONTRACTIBUS. [118. II.
recepit: ideo si periit res, non tenebitur: non rei ratione, quia non exstat, nec locupletior est; nec acceptionis ratione, quia accipiendo beneficium non accepit, sed dedit. In pignore, ut et in locato, media via sequenda est, ut qui rem accepit nec de casu quovis teneatur ut commodatarius, et majorem tamen diligentiam quam depositarius praestare debeat: quia pignoris acceptio est quidem gratuita, sed accedere solet con- tractui oneroso.
2 Qus omnia Romanis quidem congruunt legibus, sed non ex illis primitus, sed ex zquitate naturali veniunt. Quare eadem apud alias quoque gentes reperire est. Inter ceteros apud Hebreum Mosem Maimonidem libro mr. duetoris dubi- tantium!eap. 43. Spectavit huc Seneca cum dixit, a/os fidem debere, alios tutelam. | Ad hanc vero formam de cz- teris quoque contractibus judicium est faciendum. Sed gene- rali tractatione quantum instituto nostro sufücit absoluta, speciales quasdam contractuum quzstiones percurramus.
Capite 43] Convenit cum Exodi loco cap. xxii. 7, 10, 11, 12, 13. Moses de Kotzi przeceptis jubentibus LX X X VIII, et LXXXIX.
5 Vide de iis omnibus, quz ad preti naturam et varia genera pertinent, Pv- rENDORFIUM 7226 Jure Nat. εἰ Gent. Lib. v. cap. i. cum Notis nostris, alte-