Our discussion, which we here close, has, I hope, proved that the development of the Gaina church has not been, at any time, violently interrupted by some very extraordinary events; that we can follow this development from its true beginning through its different stages, and that frainism is as much independent from other sects, especially from ‘ Indische Studien, XVI, p. 248.
INTRODUCTION.
xlvii Buddhism, as can be expected from any sect. We must leave to future researches to work out the details, but I hope to have removed the doubts, entertained by some scholars, about the independence of the ffaina religion and the value of its sacred books as trustworthy documents for the elucidation of its early history.
It remains for me to add a few remarks about the two works which have been translated in this book.
The A^ar 4 hga Sutra, or, as it is sometimes called, the Samayika^, is the first of the eleven Angas. It treats of the a^ara, or conduct, which falls under the last of the four heads, or anuyogas, into which the sacred lore is divided, viz. Dharmakatha, Capita, Dravya, and iTara^akara^a. The Akaringa Sutra contains two books, or S'rutaskandhas, very different from each other in style and in the manner in which the subject is treated. The subdivisions of the second book being called Whlds, or appendices, it follows that only the first book is really old. That it was consi¬ dered so even in later times, is apparent from a remark of S'tlinka, who wrote the commentary, which is the oldest one extant^. For speaking of the mangala or auspicious sen¬ tence which, according to a current theory, must occur at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of each work, 5 iianka points out as such the first sentence of the first lesson of the first lecture, the first sentence of the fifth lesson of the fifth lecture, and the latter half of the i6th verse in the fourth lesson of the eighth lecture of the first book. It is evident that he regarded the A^aranga Sutra as ending with the last-named passage, which is the last but one of the first book.
The first book, then, is the oldest part of the Akkxtngd, Sfitra; it is probably the old Kkkxkhgz. Sfitra itself to which other treatises have been added. For it is complete in ^ See Professor 'W'eber’s remarks on the possible bearing of this name in the treatise I had so often occasion to quote, p. 243 seqq.
“ It was not, however, the first commentary, for Silahka mentions one by Gandhahastin.
xlviii GAINA sOtRAS.
itself; it describes in rather enigmatical language the pro¬ gress of the faithful towards the highest perfection. The last lecture, a sort of popular ballad on the glorious suffer¬ ing of the prophet, was perhaps added in later times, but as it stands now it serves well to illustrate and to set a high example of the true ascetic’s life. But the greater part of the book is in prose of the most bewildering kind. Fre¬ quently we meet with fragments only of sentences, or with sentences which it is impossible to construe. This reminds us of the style of the Brahmanical Sutras; but there is this difference, that in the last-named works the single aphorisms are the necessary links in the logical concatena¬ tion of ideas, while in our book the single sentences or parts of sentences do not seem to be connected with one another in order to carry on the illustration of an idea. They do not read like a logical discussion, but like a sermon made up by quotations from some then well-known sacred books. In fact the fragments of verses and whole verses which are liberally interspersed in the prose text go far to prove the correctness of my conjecture; for many of these ‘disjecta membra ’ are very similar to verses or Padas of verses occurring in the SutrakrftAhga, Uttaridhyayana, and Daravaikdlika Shtras. They must therefore be taken as allusions to standard authorities. The same must be assumed of at least some prose sentences, especially those which are incomplete in themselves. Other passages again seem to be added to those quotations in order to explain or to complete them. I shall give a few specimens. I, 4, 1, 3 we read, aho ya r^o ^atamdwe dhlre; this is a Pada of a TrishAibh, and accordingly a quotation. The words which follow, saya dgayapanna^e, explain the meaning of that quotation, aho ya rio = say 4,,^ata- mkne dhlre = igayapanniwe. The text continues pa matte bahiya p 4 sa. This is probably a Pada of a 51 oka; the rest of the sentence, appamatte say4 parakkame^^a, is the moral application of the pre¬ ceding one. We should therefore translate: ‘ Day and night exerting himself and steadfast,’ i. e. always having ready wisdom. ‘ Look, the careless stand outside,’ (there- INTRODUCTION.
xlix fore) being careful he should always exert himself. The commentator however does not separate the quotations from the glosses, but takes all these passages as parts of one sentence, which he interprets in the way that it has been rendered in the text of my translation, p. 37.
In this as in many other cases I have preferred to give in my translation the meaning which 6'llMka has given in his commentary. For it is sometimes extremely difficult to separate the quotations from the remaining text. I have never dared to do so when they could not be proved to be parts of verses. I had therefore to leave unnoticed all such passages which, as the one quoted above, might be taken as a Pdda of a 6'loka; for in every prose work such passages occur, though they never were meant for verse. They may, therefore, only accidentally resemble parts of a ^loka in our book too, though the great number of such passages is rather suspicious. The greatest difficulty however we should incur if we were to point out the prose quota¬ tions, though there are certainly such, e.g. I, 3, i, i, sutta amu«t, munino satataw ^agaranti. Such phrases differ in style from the rest of the prose part; but it would be impossible to draw the line between them and the work of the real author. From what has been said, it will appear how difficult it is to do justice to such a work as the first book of the AMringa in the first attempt to translate it. In most cases I have contented myself with rendering the text according to the interpretation of the commentator. It must be left to future labours to come nearer the meaning of the author than it has been preserved by the tradition of the scholiasts.
Formerly the first book contained nine lectures instead of eight, one lecture, the Mahiparinnd, being now lost. It was, according to some authorities, Samaviyinga, Nandi, Ava- ryaka Niryukti, and Vidhiprabh 4 ^ the ninth lecture; but according to the Niryukti of the A/^aranga Sutra, which contains a systematic exposition of the subjects treated in the single lectures and lessons of the A>^arAnga itself, and * See Weber, Indische Studien, XVI, p. 251 seq.
1 GAINA SUTRAS, to vSlldnka and the other commentators, it was the eighth lecture. It contained seven lessons, and treated of some details of ascetic lifeh The fact that the same subjects were treated in the second book probably occasioned the loss of the Mah^parinna, ‘because it was superfluous*.’
The second book consists of four parts (ATul^) or appen¬ dices. There were originally five ^filis, but the fifth, the Nisihiya^^a^a, is now reckoned as a separate work. The first and second parts lay down rules for conduct. Their style is very different from that of the first book, being rather cumbrous, and not at all aphoristical. The greatest difficulty in translating these parts is caused by the numer¬ ous technical terms, some of which remain obscure, notwith¬ standing the explanation of the commentary; others again are simply transcribed into Sanskrit by the scholiast, and seem to require no definition to be understood by the modern (Fainas. But it is different with us, who are fre¬ quently reduced to guessing at the meaning of techni¬ calities which a Yati could explain at once. It is therefore to be hoped that some scholars in India, who can avail themselves of the instruction of a Yati, will turn their attention to this subject, and get an authentic explanation of the many technical terms the meaning of which cannot be ascertained by a European scholar by the means of (Faina works only.
The third and fourth iiTulas have, according to the Pari- Tish(a Parvan IX, been revealed to the eldest sister of Sthfi- labhadra by Stmandhara, a (Fina living in Purvavideha, a mythical continent. This tradition is very remarkable, as it assigns what we should call the composition of the two last parts of the Kkkrknga. Sfitra to the same time when the Kalpa Sutra, which treats of a similar subject, was composed.
The third part is of great interest, as it contains the materials from which the Life of Mah^vlra in the Kalpa Sutra has been worked out. In fact most of the prose paragraphs occur with but small alterations in the Kalpa INTRODUCTION, li Sutra. The latter work adds little that is material from an historical point of view, but a great deal of descriptions which have become typical and are to be found in other Caina works adapted to similar circumstances. The Akk- rahga Shtra contains, besides the above-mentioned para¬ graphs, some verses which are wanting in the Kalpa Sutra, On comparing these verses with those in the eighth lecture of the first book, we become aware of the great difference which subsists between both portions of the AMrahga Sutra, for in both, kindred subjects are treated in Arya verses, yet the difference in style and in the treatment of the metre is such as can only be explained by the assump¬ tion of a considerable distance of time.
The latter part of the third ifula, which treats of the five great vows, wdth their twenty-five clauses, calls for no fur¬ ther remark; nor is anything more to be said about the twelve verses which make up the fourth Kuli., but that they are probably old, and have been added here for want of a better place.
The translation of the AHringa Sfltra is based on my edition of the text in the P41i Text Society^ and the commentaries printed in the Calcutta edition of the Akk- ranga Sutra. They are: I. Tiki of 6'tlanka, also called Tattviditya, said to have been finished in the S'aka year 798 or 876 A.D., with the help of Vihari Sddhu.
3. Dtpik4 of Glxidh&msdL Suri, a teacher of the Brfhat Kharatara Gzhkha.. The Dipiki is almost verbally copied from the Tika, which it pretends to reduce to a smaller compass. But the reduction consists almost entirely in the omission of S'ilanka’s comments on the Niryukti verses, which form his introduction to every lecture and lesson.
3. P4rjva;^andra’s Bal4vabodha or Gi^erati Gloss. In some parts of the second book, which are not explained in the older commentaries, this gloss was the only help I had. It generally closely follows the explanation of the older commentaries, more especially that of the Dipika.
About the Kalpa Sfitra I have spoken at some length in * The Ay&riimga Sutta of the fvetambara Jains, London, 1882.
lii GAINA sOtRAS.
the introduction to my edition of that work'^, to which I refer the reader for further particulars. Since that time Professor Weber has taken up the subject in his treatise on the Sacred Books of the (Fainas and corrected some mistakes of mine. He ascertained that the whole Kalpa Shtra is incorporated as the eighth lecture in the Dai'^- i'rutaskandha, the fourth AT/^eda Sutra. Professor Weber concurs in my opinion that the ‘Rules for Yatis’ may be the work of Bhadrabahu and that the ‘ List of Sthaviras ’ probably has been added by Devarddhi, the editor of the Siddhinta. I do not think, however, that Devarddhi was the author of the Life of Mahivira also, as Professor Weber suggests. For if it were the work of so well known a man, tradition would certainly not have allowed such a fact to become forgotten. It was a different thing with the List of Sthaviras, which consists of four or five distinct treatises only put together and added to the Lives of the (Finas by the editor of the work. We cannot argue from the style of the Lives of the (Finas that that part must be younger than the Rules for Yatis; for the same difference of style occa¬ sioned by the diversity of the matter exists between the third Wfil 4 of the A/^aranga Siltra and the two preceding ones. Nor can the meagreness of the contents be adduced as an argument against the antiquity of the Lives of the (Finas, since they were probably not' intended for bio¬ graphical treatises, but served a liturgical purpose; for when the images of the Tirthakaras are worshipped in the temples they are addressed with hymns, one of which sums up the Kalya«akas or auspicious moments®. It is '■ The Kalpa Sutra of Bhadrabahu, Leipzig, 1879. Abhandlnngen fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes, VII, 1.
^ That the ‘ Rules for Yatis ’ must have been composed at least six genera¬ tions after Mahavira is evident from §§ 3-8, but probably the work is still younger. For in § 6 the Sthaviras, who come immediately after the disciples of the Garaadharas, are spoken of in some contrast to the ‘ Sramanas Nirgranthas of the present time.’ Yet the work cannot be comparatively young, because it appears from 5§ 28-30 that the Ginakalpa had not yet fallen into disuse, as it had done in later times.
® The rites are described and the hymns given in a modern work called IfaturvimsatitlrthahkarSnam puga, a MS. of which belongs to the Deccan College.
INTRODUCTION.
Hii with these Kaly^wakas that the Lives of the Chinas are chiefly concerned, and this fact seems to prove that the custom of mentioning the Kaly 4 «akas in the worship of the Tlrthakaras is a very old one; for otherwise it would be impossible to conceive what could have induced an author to treat so lai'gely of so barren a subject as has been done in the Kalpa Sutra. But whatever may be the age of the several parts of the Kalpa Sutra, it is certain that this work has been held in high esteem by the 6^ainas for more than a thousand years. It therefore deserves a place in this collection of translations from the Sacred Books of the East. I could only have wished to make my transla¬ tion more worthy of the place where it is to make its appearance; but if I have somewhat fallen short in my performance, I hope it will be accepted as an excuse that I had to translate into a language which is not my own, works of a literature which, notwithstanding all that has been done for it, still is all but virgin soil to us.
HERMANN JACOBI.
Munster, Westphalia, J AA'ArANGA SUTRA.
J Aa^ArAnGA SUTRA.
FIRST BOOK\ FIRST LECTURE^ CALLED KNOWLEDGE OF THE WEAPON.
First Lesson®.
O long-lived {Cambtisvdniin! I (Sudharman) have heard the following discourse from the vene¬ rable (Mahdvira): (i) Here many do not remember whether they have descended in an eastern direction (when they were born in this world), or in a southern, or in a western, or in a northern direction, or in the direction from above, or in the direction from below, or in a direc¬ tion intermediate (between the cardinal points), or in a direction intermediate between these (and the ^ Suyakkhawdha, irutaskandha.
Kggh^iyzm., adhyayana. The first lecture is called sattha- pari««t (f astra-pari^^d), ‘knowledge of the weapon.’ Weapons are divided into material weapon and weapon consisting in a state (bhdva). The latter is explained to be non-control (asawzyama) or the wrong use of mind, speech, and body. Knowledge (par^wd) is twofold: comprehension and renunciation. The subject of the first lecture is, therefore, the comprehension and renunciation of everything that hurts other beings.
® Uddesaya, uddefaka.
* (rambfisvdmin was the disciple of Sudharman, one of the eleven chief disciples (ga«adhara) of Mahdvira.
2 AirlRlNGA stjTRA.
cardinal points). (2) Similarly, some do not know whether their soul is born again and again or not; nor what they were formerly, nor what they will be¬ come after having died and left this world. (3) Now this is what one should know, either by one’s own knowledge or through the instruction of the highest (i. e. a Tlrthakara), or having heard it from others: that he descended in an eastern direction, or in any other direction (particularised above). Similarly, some know that their soul is born again and again, that it arrives in this or that direction, whatever direction that may be. (4) He believes in soul k believes in the world believes in reward believes in action (acknowledged to be our own doing in such judgments as these): ‘ I did it‘I shall cause another to do it ‘I shall allow another to do itk’ In the world, these are all the causes of sin k which must be compre¬ hended and renounced. (5) A man that does not comprehend and renounce the causes of sin, descends in a cardinal or intermediate direction, wanders to all cardinal or intermediate directions, is born again and again in manifold births, experiences all painful feelings. (6) About this the Revered One has taught ^ I. e. in a permanent soul, different from the body. This is said against the.STdrvdkas.
® I. e. the plurality of souls, not in one all-soul, as the Veddntins.
® Kamma (karma) is that which darkens our intellect, &c. Its result is the suffering condition of men, its cause is action (kiriyd, kriyd).
* The different tenses employed in these sentences imply, ac¬ cording to the commentators, the acknowledgment of the reality of time, as past, present, future.
* Kamma-samdraMbha. Kamma has been explained above. Samirawbha, a special action (kriy^), is the engaging in something blamable (savadyanush/. 4 Sna).
BOOK I, LECTURE I, LESSON 2.
3 the truth (comprehension and renunciation). For the sake of the splendour, honour, and glory of this life, for the sake of birth, death, and final liberation, for the removal of pain, all these causes of sin are at work, which are to be comprehended and renounced in this world. He who, in the world, comprehends and renounces these causes of sin, is called a reward¬ knowing sage (mum). Thus I say^. (7) Second Lesson The (living) world is afflicted, miserable, diffi¬ cult to instruct, and without discrimination. In this world full of pain, suffering by their different acts, see the benighted, ones cause great pain, (i) See! there are beings individually embodied (in earth; not one all-soul). See! there are men who * These words (tti bemi) stand at the end of every lesson. The commentators supply them also for the beginning of each lesson.
^ After the chief tenets of (rainism with regard to soul and actions have briefly been stated in the first lesson, the six remaining lessons of the first lecture treat of the actions which injure the six classes of lives or souls. The (?ainas seem to have arrived at their concept of soul, not through the search after the Self, the self- existing unchangeable principle in the ever-changing world of phe¬ nomena, but through the perception of life. For the most general Gaina term for soul is life (g'iva), which is identical with self (fiyfi, dtman). There are numberless lives or souls, not only embodied in animals, men, gods, hell-beings (tasa, trasa), and plants (vawassat, vanaspati), but also in the four elements—earth, water, fire, wind. Earth, &c., regarded as the abode of lives is called earth-body, &c. These bodies are only perceptible when an infinite number of them is united in one place. The earth-lives, &c., possess only one organ, that of feeling; they have undeveloped (avyakta) intellect and feelings (vedanfi), but no limbs, &c. The doctrines about these elementary lives are laid down in Bhadrabfihu’s Niryukti of our Sfitra, and are commented upon in ^tldnka’s great commentary of it. They are very abstruse, and deal in the most minute distinctions, which baffle our comprehension.
4 A^ARInGA sdXRA.
4 A^ARInGA sdXRA.
control themselves, (whilst others only) pretend to be houseless (i.e. monks, such as the Bauddhas, whose conduct differs not from that of house¬ holders), because one destroys this (earth-body) by bad and injurious doings, and many other beings, besides, which he hurts by means of earth, through his doing acts relating to earth. (2) About this the Revered One has taught the truth: for the sake of the splendour, honour, and glory of this life, for the sake of birth, death, and final liberation, for the removal of pain, man acts sinfully towards earth, or causes others to act so, or allows others to act so. This deprives him of happiness and perfect wisdom. About this he is informed when he has understood or heard, either from the Revered One or from the monks, the faith to be coveted. (3) There are some who, of a truth, know this (i. e. injuring) to be the bondage, the delusion, the death, the hell. For this^ a man is longing when he destroys this (earth-body) by bad, injurious doings, and many other beings, besides, which he hurts by means of earth, through his doing acts relating to earth. Thus I say. (4) As somebody may cut or strike a blind man (who cannot see the wound), as somebody may cut or strike the foot, the ankle, the knee, the thigh, the hip, the navel, the belly, the flank, the back, the bosom, the heart, the breast, the neck, the arm, the finger, the nail, the eye, the brow, the forehead, the head, as some kill (openly), as some extirpate * Ikk’ atthaw. The commentators think this to be a reference to the sentence. For the sake of the splendour, &c. It would be more natural to connect it with the foregoing sentence; the meaning is. For bondage, &c., men commit violence, though they believe it to be for the happiness of this life.
BOOK I, LECTURE I, LESSON 3.
5 (secretly), (thus the earth-bodies are cut, struck, and killed though their feeling is not manifest). (5) He who injures these (earth-bodies) does not comprehend and renounce the sinful acts; he who does not injure these, comprehends and renounces the sinful acts. Knowing them, a wise man should not act sinfully towards earth, nor cause others to act so, nor allow others to act so. He who knows these causes of sin relating to earth, is called a reward-knowing sage. Thus I say. (6) Third Lesson b Third Lesson b (Thus I say): He who acts rightly, who does pious work, who practises no deceit, is called houseless, (i) One should, conquering the world, persevere in that (vigour of) faith which one had on the entrance in the order; the heroes (of faith), humbly bent, (should retain their belief in) the illustrious road (to final liberation) and in the world (of water-bodies); having rightly compre¬ hended them through the instruction (of Mahdvira), (they should retain) that which causes no danger (i. e. self-control). Thus I say. (2) A man should not (himself) deny the world of (water-bodies), nor should he deny the self. He who denies the world (of water-bodies), denies the self; and he who denies the self, denies the world of (water-bodies). (3) See! there are men who control themselves; ' The water-lives which are treated of in this lesson are, as is the case with all elementary lives, divided into three classes: the sen¬ tient, the senseless, and the mixed. Only that water which is the abode of senseless water-lives may be used. Therefore water is to be strained before use, because the senseless lives only are believed to remain in water after that process.
6 A^aranga sOtra.
6 A^aranga sOtra.
others pretend only to be houseless; for one de¬ stroys this (water-body) by bad, injurious doings, and many other beings, besides, which he hurts by means of water, through his doing acts relating to water. (4) About this the Revered One has taught the truth: for the sake of the splendour, honour, and glory of this life, for the sake of birth, death, and final liberation, for the removal of pain, man acts sinfully towards water, or causes others to act so, or allows others to act so. (5) This deprives him of happiness and perfect wisdom. About this he is informed when he has understood and heard from the Revered One, or from the monks, the faith to be coveted. There are some who, of a truth, know this (i. e. injuring) to be the bondage, the delusion, the death, the hell. For this a man is longing when he destroys this (water-body) by bad and injurious doings, and many other beings, besides, which he hurts by means of water, through his doing acts relating to water. Thus I say. (6) There are beings living in water, many lives; of a truth, to the monks water has been declared to be living matter. See! considering the injuries (done to water-bodies), those acts (which are injuries, but must be done before the use of water, e.g. straining) have been distinctly declared. Moreover he (who uses water which is not strained) takes away what has not been given (i.e. the bodies of water-lives). (A Bauddha will object); ‘ We have permission, we have permission to drink it, or (to take it) for toilet purposes.’ Thus they destroy by various injuries (the water-bodies). But in this their doctrine is of no authority.
He who injures these (water-bodies) does not BOOK I, LECTURE I, LESSON 4.
7 comprehend and renounce the sinful acts; he who does not injure these, comprehends and renounces the sinful acts. (7) Knowing them, a wise man should not act sinfully towards water, nor cause others to act so, nor allow others to act so. He who knows these causes of sin relating to water, is called a reward-knowing sage. Thus I say. (8) Fourth Lesson.
Fourth Lesson.
(Thus I say); A man should not, of his own accord, deny the world (of fire-bodies), nor should he deny the self. He who denies the world (of fire-bodies), denies the self; and he who denies the self, denies the world (of fire-bodies), (i) He who knows that (viz. fire) through which injury is done to the long-living bodies (i. e. plants) h knows also that which does no injury (i. e. control); and he who knows that which does no injury, knows also that through which no injury is done to the long-living bodies. (2) This has been seen by the heroes (of faith) who conquered ignorance; for they control themselves, always exert themselves, always mind their duty. He who is unmindful of duty, and desiring of the qualities (i.e. of the pleasure and profit which may be derived from the elements) is called the torment ^ (of living beings). Knowing this, a wise man (resolves): ‘ Now (I shall do) no more what I used to do wantonly before.’ (3) See! there are men who control themselves; others pretend only to be houseless; for one destroys this (fire-body) by bad and injurious doings, and many ' The fire-bodies live not longer than three days. Dd^mdA.
8 A^aranga s<jtra.
other beings, besides, which he hurts by means of fire, through his doing acts relating to fire. About this the Revered One has taught the truth; for the sake of the splendour, honour, and glory of this life, for the sake of birth, death, and final liberation, for the removal of pain, man acts sinfully towards fire, or causes others to act so, or allows others to act so. (4) This deprives him of happiness and perfect wisdom. About this he is informed when he has understood, or heard from the Revered One or from the monks, the faith to be coveted. There are some who, of a truth, know this (i.e. injuring) to be the bondage, the delusion, the death, the hell. For this a man is longing, when he destroys this (fire-body) by bad and injurious doings, and many other beings, besides, which he hurts by means of fire, through his doing acts relating to fire. Thus I say. (5) There are beings living in the earth, living in grass, living on leaves, living in wood, living in cowdung, living in dust-heaps, jumping beings which coming near (fire) fall into it. Some, certainly, touched by fire, shrivel up; those which shrivel up there, lose their sense there; those which lose their sense there, die there. (6) He who injures these (fire-bodies) does not com¬ prehend and renounce the sinful acts; he who does not injure these, comprehends and renounces the sinful acts. Knowing them, a wise man should not act sinfully towards fire, nor cause others to act so, nor allow others to act so. He who knows the causes of sin relating to fire, is called a reward¬ knowing sage. Thus I say. (7) BOOK I, LECTURE I, LESSON 5.
9 Fifth Lesson ^ ‘ I shall not do (acts relating to plants) after having entered the order, having recognised (the truth about these acts), and having conceived that which is free from danger (i.e. control).’
He who does no acts (relating to plants), has ceased from works; he who has ceased from them is called ‘houseless.’ (i) Quality is the whirl¬ pool (dva//a = sa»^sdra), and the whirlpool is quality. Looking up, down, aside, eastward, he sees colours, hearing he hears sounds; (2) longing up¬ wards, down, aside, eastward, he becomes attached to colours and sounds. That is called the world; not guarded against it, not obeying the law (of the Tlrthakaras), relishing the qualities, conducting him¬ self wrongly, he will wantonly live in a house (i.e. belong to the world). (3) See! there are men who control themselves; others pretend only to be houseless, for one destroys this (body of a planf) by bad and injurious doings, and many other ' The discussion of the ‘ wind-bodies,’ which should follow that of the fire-bodies, is postponed for two lessons in which the vege¬ table and animal world is treated of. The reason for this inter¬ ruption of the line of exposition is, as the commentators state, that the nature of wind, because of its invisibleness, is open to doubts, whilst plants and animals are admitted by all to be living beings, and are, therefore, the best support of the hylozoistical theory. That wind was not readily admitted by the ancient Indians to be a peculiar substance may still be recognised in the philosophical Sfttras of the Brahmans. For there it was thought necessary to discuss at length the proofs for the existence of a peculiar substance, wind. It should be remarked that wind was never identified with air, and that the Gainas had not yet separated air from space.
lO AiTARANGA sOtRA.
beings, besides, which he hurts by means of plants, through his doing acts relating to plants. (4) About this the Revered One has taught the truth; for the sake of the splendour, honour, and glory of this life, for the sake of birth, death, and final liberation, for the removal of pain, man acts sinfully towards plants, or causes others to act so, or allows others to act so. This deprives him of happiness and perfect wisdom. About this he is informed when he has understood, or heard from the Revered One or from the monks, the faith to be coveted. There are some who, of a truth, know this (i.e. injuring) to be the bondage, the delusion, the death, the hell. For this a man is longing when he destroys this (body of a plant) by bad and injurious doings, and many other beings, besides, which he hurts by means of plants, through his doing acts relating to plants. Thus I say. (5) As the nature of this (i.e. men) is to be born and to grow old, so is the nature of that (i. e. plants) to be born and to grow old; as this has reason, so that has reason^; as this falls sick when cut, so that falls sick when cut; as this needs food, so that needs food; as this will decay, so that will decay; as this is not eternal, so that is not eternal; as this takes increment, so that takes increment; as this is chang¬ ing, so that is changing. (6) He who injures these (plants) does not comprehend and renounce the sinful ^ The plants know the seasons, for they sprout at the proper time, the Aroka buds and blooms when touched by the foot of a well-attired girl, and the Vakula when watered with wine; the seed grows always upwards: all this would not happen if the plants had no knowledge of the circumstances about them. Such is the reasoning of the commentators.
BOOK I, LECTURE I, LESSON 6. II acts; he who does not injure these, comprehends and renounces the sinful acts. Knowing them, a wise man should not act sinfully towards plants, nor cause others to act so, nor allow others to act so. He who knows these causes of sin relating to plants, is called a reward-knowing sage. Thus I say. (7) Sixth Lesson.