O long-lived (6^ambusvamin)! I (Sudharman) have heard the following discourse from the Vener- able (Mahavira). We now come to the Lecture called ' Knowledp-e of Food.' The contents of it are as follows: Here in the East, West, North, and South there are, all in all, in the world four kinds of seed: seeds generated at the top (of the plant), at its root, at its knots, at its stem \ According to the seed and place ^ The commentators here give the reading of the Nagar^uniyas: ' the growth of seeds of the plants is fivefold, viz. they grow from the top (of the plant), its root, its knots, its stem, and its beads; (of growth) of these plants some beings — born in earth, originated in earth, and grown in earth, having in it their birth, origin, and growth, being impelled by their Karman, and coming forth in it on account of their Karman, growing there in particles of earth, the origin of various things — come forth as trees ^ (i) These living beings feed on the liquid substance ^ of these particles of earth, the origin of various things; these beings consume earth-bodies, water- bodies, fire-bodies, wind-bodies, bodies of plants; they deprive of life the bodies of manifold movable and immovable beings; the destroyed bodies which have been consumed before, or absorbed by the rind, (are) digested and assimilated (by them). And the bodies of these (trees) which bring forth their different parts, are of manifold colours, smells, tastes, touches, forms, and arrangement of corporeal par- ticles ^.
and some are of a sixth kind called sammui-/^/^ima' (i.e. those plants which are believed to be originated by the coalescing particles of the substance in which they grow, e.g. grass springing up on ground lately cleared by fire). — The various readings of the Nagar^uniyas are occasionally quoted in commentaries (see e.g. part i, p. 32, note 2). But I do not think that it has been satis- factorily made out who these Nagar^uniyas were.
^ The meaning is, that souls who on account of their Karman are to be born as trees, previously are embodied in earth, and thence they are transferred by their Karman to the seed which brings forth the tree.
2 Si«eha, explained: snigdhabhava. In the sequel where plants are spoken of, I shall render this word by ' sap ' or 'humours,' as the context may require.
^ I.e. the food assimilated by the tree is the material of w*hich its different parts, as root, stem, leaves, &c., are formed, and these parts are of manifold form, colours, &c.
390 SUTRAK21/TANGA These beings (animating trees) come into existence because of their Karman; so we are taught (by the Tirthakaras, &c.) (2) And again it has been said of old: some beings born in trees, originated by trees, sprung from trees, (&c., as in ^ I, down to) springing from trees that originated in earth, come forth as trees originated by trees ^ These beings feed on the sap of the trees originated in earth, (&c., all as m § 2, down to the end). (3) (In the same way, and in nearly the same words, the offshoots of the trees mentioned in the preceding paragraph are treated of.) (4) And again it has been said of old: some beings born in trees, (&c., all as above, down to) growing in trees, that are originated by trees, come forth as their roots, bulb, stem, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds ^ These beings feed on the sap of those trees originated by trees, (&c., all as in § 2, down to) and the bodies of the roots, bulb, stem, &c. are of manifold colours, (&c., all as in J 2, down to the end). (5) (The four paragraphs that come next, 6-9, are identical with the preceding ones, except that 'creeper ^' is substituted for ' tree.') (6-9) (In the same way ' grass ^' is treated in four paragraphs, but the whole is much abridged; then ^ Apparently trees sprung from shoots, sprouts, aerial-roots, &c. are meant. They are considered as a class different from those whose offshoots they are.
^ One soul, ^iva, pervades the whole tree; it is the soul of the tree. Separate ^ivas, however, reside in the roots, &c.
it is said that ' herbs ^ ' and 'plants-' are to be treated in four paragraphs each.) (10-15) And acrain it has been said of old: some beings born in earth, (&c., all as in } i, down to) growing there in particles of earth that are the origin of various things, come forth as Aya, Kaya, Kuha;^a, Kandu, Uvvehaliya, Nivvehaliya, Esava, Sa/'/7^a, A'/^attaga, Vasa;ziya \ (The rest as in § 2, but sub- stitute the words Aya, &c. for ' trees.') Here there is only one paragraph, the remaining three do not apply here^. (16) And again it has been said of old.: some beings born in water, (&c., all as in §} i-i 1, substitute only ' water' for ' earth.' Thus we have four paragraphs for trees, four for creepers, four for grass, four for herbs, four for plants). (17) Now it has been said of old: some beings born in water, (&c., all as above, down to) growing in par- ticles of water that are the origin of various things, come forth as Udaga, Avaga ^ Pa;mga, Sevala «, Kalambuya^ Kaseruya^ Ka/'>^/^abha/^iya, Uppala, 3 All the commentators say about the words Aya, &c. (which offer some various readings in the MSS.), is that they denote particular plants (vanaspativijesha) which must be learned from people (who know them). I give the words in their Prakrit form, and do not attempt to transpose them into Sanskrit.
* For there are no Ayas originated by Ayas except through their seed.
5 Avaka, a grassy plant growing in marshy land, Blyxa Octandra.
6 6'aivala, the aquatic plant Vallisneria. ■^ Kadamba, Nauclea Kadamba.
" Ka^eru, Scirpus Kysoor.
Paiima, Kumuya, Nali;/a \ Siibhagas6;/iya, Po;Z(^ariya, Mahapo;/^ariya, Sayavatta, Sahassavatta, Kalhara, K6ka?^ada, Tamarasa^, as stalks and fibres of lotus, as Pukkhala ^, and Pukkhalatthibhaga. (The rest similar as in § 2.) (18) And ao^ain it has been said of old: some beings come forth as movable beings from trees born in earth, from trees originated by trees, from the roots, (&c., down to) seeds produced by trees, originated by creepers born on trees, from creepers born on creepers, from the roots, &c. of creepers born on creepers, from grass ^, from herbs ^, from plants ^ from Aya, (&c,, all down to) Kura born in earth; from trees born In water (the rest similar as with trees born In earth), from Udaga, (&c., all down to) Pukkhalatthibhaga born in water. (19) These creatures feed on the sap of the trees, creepers, grass, herbs, plants, be they born In earth or water, on trees or creepers or grass or herbs or plants; (the sap) of their roots, (&c., all down to) seeds, of Ayas, &c., of Udakas, &c. And these creatures consume earth-bodies, (&c., all as In § 2, down to) assimilated by them. And the bodies of these beings born of trees, creepers, grass, herbs, plants, their roots, &c., of Ayas, &c., of Udagas, &c., are of manifold colours, (&c., the rest as In J 2, down to the end). (20) ^ The last four are well-known varieties of lotus, called in Sanskrit: utpala, padma, kumuda, nalina.
" The Sanskrit of the last seven items is: pu«(/arika, mahapufid- arika, jatapattra, sahasrapattra, kahlara, kokanada, and tamarasa; they are all varieties of lotus.
^ Pushkara.
* This is to be detailed in the same way as with trees and creepers.
And ao-ain it has been said of old: a man and a woman combine in cohabitation in a cunnus, which was produced by their Karman, and there they deposit their humours. Therein are born the souls of different men, viz. of those born in Karmabhumi \ or in Akarmabhumi, or in the minor continents, of Aryas and barbarians, as women or men or eunuchs, accord- ing to the semen and blood of the mother ^ and the other circumstances^ (contingent on their commg into existence). These beings at first feed on the menses of the mother and the semen of the father, or both combined into an unclean, foul (substance). And afterwards they absorb with a part (of their bodies) the essence ^ of whatever food the mothers take. Gradually increasing and attaining to the proper dimensions of a foetus ^ they come forth from the womb, some as males, some as females, some as neuters. As long as they are babies, they suck the mother's milk; but when they grow older, they eat boiled rice, or gruel, or both movable and immov- able beings. These beings consume earth-bodies, (&c., all as before, down to) assimilated by them. And the bodies of these men, viz. those born in Karmabhumi, or Akarmabhumi, or in the minor continents, of Aryas and barbarians, are of mani- 2 Both are indicated in the text by bi^a. According to ^'ilahka, a male will be produced if the semen is in excess; a female, if the blood; a neuter, if they are equally balanced.
3 Avaka^a. According to ^ilahka, a male is produced from the right side of the womb, a female from the left, a neuter from both together.
A * Oyam=i6^as.
^ Paliyagam, explained garbhaparipaka.
394 sOTRAKi?ZTANGA.
fold colours, (&c., all as in ^ 2, down to the end). (21) (This paragraph is nearly identical with the pre- ceding one, but substitute 'aquatic animals of five organs of sense, viz, fishes, (all down to)^ porpoises,' for ' different men ' in the beginning and the end. The following sentence in the middle is slightly different; It runs thus: ' as long as they are young, they feed on the mothers' humours, but when they grow older they eat plants, or both movable and immovable beings.') (22) (This paragraph treats of) quadrupeds-, terrestrial animals with five organs of sense, viz. solidungular animals, biungular animals, multiungular animals, and animals having toes with nails. (All as in the last paragraph, only ' as long as they are young, they feed on their mothers' milk.') (23) (This paragraph treats of) reptiles moving on the breast, (being) terrestrial animals with five organs of sense, viz. snakes, huge snakes ", Ajralika, and dragons *. (All as before, but the following passage is different.) Some bring forth eggs, some bring forth living young ones; some come out of the egg as males, some as females, some as neuters. As long as they are young, they live on wind. (The rest as above.) (24) (This paragraph treats of) terrestrial animals with five organs of sense, walking on their arms, viz. iguanas, ichneumons, porcupines, frogs, chameleons, ^ See Uttaradhyayana XXXVI, 173; above, p. 223. ^ Compare Uttaradhyayana XXXVI, 180, ibidem. ^ A^agara, literally serpents which devour goats. * Mahoraga. According to the Guzerati gloss these snakes are a thousand yq^anas long.
Khoras, Gharakolllas \ Vissa;;2bharas ^, rats, man- gooses, Pailaiyas, cats, (S'ohas, A'auppaiyas ^ (The rest as in the last paragraph.) (25) (This paragraph treats of) aerial animals with five organs of sense: birds with membranous wings, birds with feathered wings, birds with wings in the shape of a box, and birds (which sit on) outspread wings ^ (All as before; only the following passage is different): ' As long as they are young, they are hatched by their mothers' warmth.' (The rest as above.) (26) And again it has been said of old: there are beings of manifold birth and origin, (&c., all as in § I, down to) growing there on the animate or in- animate bodies of manifold movable or immovable creatures, come forth as parasites ^ These beings feed on the humours of various movable and im- movable creatures, &c. And the bodies of these movable and immovable parasites are of manifold colours, (&c., as above). (27) In the same way vermin generated in filthy sub- stances *' and in the skin of living animals '^ are to be treated of. (28, 29) And again it has been said of old: there are some beings of manifold birth and origin, (&c., all as inf i, ^ Gr/'hakokila, probably identical with gr z'hagolika, a lizard.
^ Vijva7;/bhara is given in the smaller Petersburg Dictionary as the name of a scorpion or some similar animal. However, it must denote here some other animal.
* This may be >^atushpadika, quadruped; but then the word must be taken in a restricted sense, perhaps, small quadrupeds.
* See Uttaradhyayana XXXVI, 187; above, p. 224. Perhaps bee- tles and butterflies are intended by the two last kinds of pakshins?
^ A«usuya=:anusuta or anusyuta.
® Duruvasawbhava. '' Khuruduga.
down to) growing thereon (or in) the animate or inanimate bodies of manifold movable or immov- able creatures as that (water)-body \ which is pro- duced by wind, condensed by wind, and carried along by wind; it goes upwards, when there is an upward wind; it goes downwards, when there is a downw^ard wind; it goes in a horizontal direction, when there is a horizontal wind; (its varieties are) hoar-frost, snow, mist, hailstones, dew, and rain. These beings feed on the humours of these manifold movable and immovable creatures, &c. And the bodies of these (water-lives, viz.) hoar-frost, &c., produced by manifold movable or immovable creatures, are of manifold colours, (&c., as above) ^. (30) And aorain it has been said of old: some beini^s, born in w^ater, (&c., all similar as in § i, downi to) come forth in water(-bodies) in the water produced by manifold movable or immovable beings. These beings feed on the humours of the water(-bodies) produced by manifold movable and immovable creatures. (The rest similar as above.) (31) And again it has been said of old: some beings, born in water, (&c., all similar as in § i, down to) come forth in water-bodies produced by other water- bodies. These beings feed on the humours of those other w^ater-bodies produced by water-bodies. (The rest similar as above.) (32) And again it has been said of old: some beings, born in water, (&c., all similar as in J i, down to) come forth as movable creatures in the water ^ There is apparently no predicate in this sentence.
" This paragraph gives the ' scientific ' explanation of the way by which water-bodies or the bodies of water-lives are produced by wind.
produced by water-bodies. These beings feed on the humours of the water(-bodies) produced by water. (The rest similar as before.) (33) And again it has been said of old: some beings, of various birth and origin, (&c., all as in ^ i, down to) come forth as fire-bodies in the manifold animate or inanimate bodies of movable or immovable creatures ^ These beings feed on the manifold movable or immovable creatures. (The rest similar as before.)
The remaining three paragraphs are similar (to those treating of) water-bodies. (34) (This paragraph treats of wind-bodies in the same way as the preceding ones treated of fire-bodies; like it, it consists of four paragraphs). (35) And again it has been said of old: some beings, of various birth and origin, (&c., all as in ^ i, down to) come forth, in the manifold animate and inani- mate bodies of movable and immovable creatures^, as earth, gravel, &c. Here the following verses (from the Uttaradhyayana XXXVI, 74-77) are to be made use of: 1. Earth, gravel, sand, stones, rocks, rock-salt, iron, copper, tin, lead, silver, gold, and diamond; 2. Orpiment, vermilion, realgar, Sasaka, antimony, coral, Abhrapa/ala, Abhravaluka; these are varieties of gross (earth-)bodies, and precious stones.
' E.g. when two bulls or elephants rush upon one another, sparks of fire are seen issuing from their horns or teeth. Fire is produced when two pieces of wood or stone are rubbed one against the other.
" According to the commentators, earth-bodies are produced in the shape of precious stones, in the head of snakes, of pearls in the teeth (sic) of elephants, and so in reeds, &c.
398 SUTRATvi?7TANGA 3. Hyacinth, natron, Ahka, crystal, Lohitaksha, emerald, Masaragalla, Bhu^amo/'aka, and sapphire; 4. A^andana, red chalk, Ha?;^sagarbha, Pulaka, and sulphur; A^andraprabha, lapis lazuli, 6^alakanta, and Suryakanta.
These beings feed on the humours of these manifold movable and immovable beings. (The rest as above.)
The remaining three paragraphs are similar (to those treating of) water-bodies. (36) And aeain it has been said of old: all sorts of livino- beines, of manifold birth, origin, and growth, born in bodies, originated in bodies, grown in bodies, feeding on bodies, experience their Karman, are actuated by it, have their form and duration of life determined by Karman, and undergo changes throuph the influence of Karman. This you should know, and knowing it you will be careful and cir- cumspect with regard to your food, and always exert yourself. (37) Thus I say.
FOURTH LECTURE, CALLED RENUNCIATION OF ACTIVITY.
O long-lived (C'ambusvamin)! I (Sudharman) have heard the following Discourse from the Venerable (Mahavira). We now come to the Lecture called 'Renunciation of Activity.' The contents of it are as follows: It is the Self that may^ not renounce (activity), that may be accustomed to act, that may adhere to errors, that may be prone to sin, that may be thoroughly ignorant, that may be thoroughly stolid 2, that may not consider the operations ^ of mind, speech, and body, that may not avoid and renounce sins.
The Venerable One has said, 'He (i. e. the Self) is uncontrolled, unresigned, does not avoid and renounce sins, is active, careless, prone to sin, thoroughly ignorant, thoroughly stolid. Though a fool does not consider ^ the operations of his mind, speech, and body, nor does see even a dream ^; still he commits sins ^ (i) The opponent says to the teacher: ' There can be no sin, if (the perpetrator of an action) does not possess sinful thoughts, speech, and functions of the body, if he does not kill, if he has no internal organ, if he does not consider the operations of mind, speech, and body, if he does not gee even a dream.'
^ 'May' is to render yavi = /'api. This word is used here to indicate that the reverse is true in other cases. This paragraph emphasises the G^aina doctrine that the Self or atman is the direct cause of all actions of an individual being, in opposition to the Sahkhya philosophers who maintain the absolute inactivity of the purusha, and to the Bauddhas who deny the existence of a separate atman altogether.
^ Literally, sleeping (sutta = supta).
^ Literally, speeches (vakka = vakya).
* We ought, perhaps, to translate: if he is not conscious of, &c.
® Le. when consciousness is fainter than in a dream.
" The doctrine of the Gainas is that Karman is the result of the action of every being, even of those whose intellect or consciousness is not developed, as with the gkendriyas or beings who possess but one organ of sense. The opponent, however, maintains that only conscious actions of intelligent beings bring about Karman. This question is discussed in the following paragraphs.
What is the meaning of the opponent in making this statement? ' When there is a sinful mind, there is sin of the mind; when there is sinful speech, there is sin of the speech; when there is a sinful body, there is sin of the body. When one kills, possesses an internal organ, and considers the operations of mind, speech, and body, when one sees even a dream, then there is sin. Only he who has these qualities can commit sin.' The opponent goes on to say, ' Those who say: There is sin, though (the perpetrator of an action) does not possess sinful thoughts, speeches, and functions of the body, though he does not kill, though he does not possess an internal organ, though he does not consider the operations of mind, speech, and body, and though he does not see even a dream, — those who say this, are wrong.' {2) Here the teacher says to the opponent: ' It is true what I have just said: there is sin, though (the perpetrator of the action) do not possess sinful thoughts, (&c., all as above, down to) though he do not see even a dream.' ' What is the reason there- of?' (The A/arya says) M 'The Venerable One has assigned the six classes of living beings as the reason: the earth-lives, (&c., all down to) movable beings. With regard to these six classes of living beings, the Self does not avoid and renounce sins, he is wicked and does harm through cruelty: (this holds good with regard to the five cardinal sins:) killing of living beings, &c. (and the passions): anger, &c. (down to) the sin of wrong belief (3) (The A/('arya says): ' The Venerable One has illustrated this by the example of a murderer: ^ These words here and in the sequel are in Sanskrit; they probably are a gloss.
a murderer (who hates) a householder or his son or the king or his servant, resolves, on an occasion offering, to enter (the victim's house) and to kill him when he finds an opportunity ^ Is not this murderer who has formed this resolution ^, (a man) who, day and night, whether sleeping or waking, is full of hostility and wrong; who is wicked and does harm through cruelty? An unbiassed opponent before whom this is laid, will answer: Indeed, he is! ' (4) (The A/'arya says): ' As this murderer who has formed the above resolution is a man who (&c., all as in § 4, down to) does harm through cruelty — (and this holds good with regard to the five cardinal sins:) killing of living beings, &c. (and the passions:) anger, &c., (down to) the sin of wrong belief — so it has been said of him by the Venerable One: he ^ is uncontrolled, unresigned, he does not avoid and renounce sins, he is active, careless, prone to sin, thoroughly ignorant, thoroughly stolid. Though a fool does not consider the operations of his mind, speech, and body, nor does see even a dream, still he commits sins. (5) As a murderer who entertains (murderous) in- tentions towards a householder, &c., is a man who (&c., all as in } 4, down to) does harm through cruelty; so an ignorant man who entertains (cruel) intentions towards all sorts of living beino^s, is a man ^ The Nagar^uniyas have another reading (where, is not stated by 6'ilahka): If he sees no opportunity, or his proposed victim is always on his guard, he does not kill him, but he resolves in his mind: If I get an opportunity, or I find that man off his guard, I shall certainly kill him.
2 The original repeats the preceding passage in full. I abridge it here and in the sequel.
^ I.e. every soul, even that of a being with but one organ of sense. [45] D d 402 StjTRAK7?7TANGA who (&c., all as in § 4, down to) does harm through cruelty. (6) (An opponent might object): This is no good reasoning. (For) there are many living beings which one, during one's whole life, never saw, nor heard of, nor cared for, nor took notice of. Towards these beings, therefore, one cannot (be said to) en- tertain (murderous) intentions, nor to be one who, day and night, whether sleeping or waking, is full of hostility and wrong, (&c., the rest as in $ 4). (7)^ (The A/arya says): The Venerable One has refuted this by two illustrations, one of a sentient being, the other of a senseless being. The first is as follows: A sentient being, possessing five organs of sense and a developed internal organ, may with regard to the six classes of living beings, viz. earth- bodies, (all clown to) movable beings, impose some restriction upon himself; (e.g.) that he will meet his wants, or have them met by others, by means of earth-bodies only. His intention is: I shall meet my wants, or have them met by others, by means of earth-bodies only. His intention is not (to make use of) this or that (particular earth-body): -he meets his wants, or has them met by others, by means of earth-bodies in general. With regard to them.
^ ^'ilanka here makes it clear that the discussion, in the preceding paragraphs, is carried on in the form of a syllogism of five parts established in Hindu logics. § i contains the proposition, prati^T/a, § 3 the cause, hetu, § 4 the exemplification, udaharawa or dr/sh/anta, § 5 the upanaya or that part ^vhich shows that the hetu is in the" subject of the syllogism, and § 6 the conclusion, nigamana. We thus see how deeply rooted in, and how genial to, the mind of the Hindus was the pa;7y^avayavam anumanam or syllogism of five parts; for the author conforms to it, I dare say, unintentionally.
therefore, he is uncontrolled, unrestrained, does not avoid and renounce sins. The same applies to the remaining five classes of living beings. — Some one may meet his wants, or have them met by others, by means of the six classes of living beings. His intention is: I shall meet my wants, or have them met by others, by means of the six classes of living beings; it is not: by means of some particular beings. He meets his wants, (&c.) by means of living beings in general. With regard to them, therefore, he is uncontrolled, &c. (This holds good with the five cardinal sins): killing of living beings, &c., (and with the passions): anger, (&c., all down to) the sin of wrong belief The Venerable One has said that such a creature, (&c., all as in J i, down to) commits sins. (8) The illustration of senseless beings is as follows: Senseless beings, viz. earth-bodies, (&c., all down to) plants, to which must be added, as a sixth item, some movable beings, which have no reason nor consciousness, nor intellect, nor mind, nor speech, in order to do something, or to have it done by others, or to consent to others' doing it; these benighted creatures (are to be considered as murderers), are full of hostility and wrong (all as in f 4) ^ against all ^ If the passage were printed in full, the most glaring contra- dictions would stare the reader in the face. The cause hereof is not that the passage cannot correctly be rendered, but that the authors of the Siatras always make use of set phrases whether all parts of them suit the case in hand or not. Sometimes we can avoid downright nonsense by selecting a somewhat different rendering from what was given in another part of the book; and so I do in the last sentence of this paragraph. But this is only a makeshift.
sorts of living beings. (This holds good with the five cardinal sins:) killing of living beings, &c., (and with the passions, all down to) the sin of wrong belief. Know this: though these beinors have neither mind nor speech, yet as they cause pain, grief, damages, harm, and injury, they must be regarded as not abstaining from causing pain, &c. (9) Thus even senseless beings are reckoned instru- mental in bringing about slaughter of living beings, (&c., all down to) the sin of wrong belief. Beings, whatever their origin, who were sentient (in one existence) will become senseless ones (in another) and vice versa. Not getting rid of, nor shaking off, nor annihilating, nor destroying their Karman, the thoroughly wicked and ignorant wander from the body of a senseless being into that of sentient ones, or from the body of a sentient being into that of sense- less ones, or from the body of a sentient being into that of another, or from the body of a senseless being into that of another. The sentient beings and the senseless ones, both are wrong in their conduct and commit sins through cruelty. The Venerable One has said that such a (creature) is uncontrolled, (&c., all as in ^ i, down to) commits sins. (10)