The three faces on the right show the same face in repose, with a natural smile, and a smile caused by electrically stimulating the muscles THE STORY OF THE MIND BY JAMES MARK BALDWIN WITH ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK McCLURE, PHILLIPS tf CO.
MCMIV BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
PREFACE.
IN this little book I have endeavoured to maintain the simplicity which is the ideal of this series. It is more difficult, however, to be simple in a topic which, even in its illustrations, demands of the reader more or less facility in the exploration of his own mind. I am persuaded that the attempt to make the matter of psychology more elementary than is here done, would only result in making it untrue and so in defeating its own object.
In preparing the book I have secured the right and welcomed the opportunity to include certain more popular passages from earlier books and ar- ticles. It is necessary to say this, for some peo- ple are loath to see a man repeat himself. When one has once said a thing, however, about as well as he can say it, there is no good reason that he should be forced into the pretence of saying something different simply to avoid using the same form of words a second time. The question, of course, is as to whether he should not then re- sign himself to keeping still, and letting others do the further speaking. There is much to be said for such a course. But if one have the right to print more severe and difficult things, and think he really has something to say which would in- struct the larger audience, it would seem only fair VI THE STORY OF THE MIND.
to allow him to speak in the simpler way also, even though all that he says may not have the merit of escaping the charge of infringing his own copy- rights!
I am indebted to the proprietors of the follow- ing magazines for the use of such passages: The Popular Science Monthly, The Century Maga- zine, The Inland Educator; and with them I also wish to thank The Macmillan Company and the owners of Appletons' Universal Cyclopaedia.
As to the scope and contents of the Story, I have aimed to include enough statement of meth- ods and results in each of the great departments of psychological research to give the reader an intelligent idea of what is being done, and to whet his appetite for more detailed information. In the choice of materials ^ have relied frankly on my own experience and in debatable matters given my own opinions. This gives greater reality to the several topics, besides making it possible, by this general statement, at once to acknowledge it, and also to avoid discussion and citation of au- thorities in the text. At the same time, in the exposition of general principles I have endeav- oured to keep well within the accepted truth and terminology of psychology.
It will be remarked that in several passages the evolution theory is adopted in its application to the mind. While this great theory can not be discussed in these pages, yet I may say that, in my opinion, the evidence in favour of it is about the same, and about as strong, as in biology, where it is now made a presupposition of scien- tific explanation. So far from being unwelcome, I find it in psychology no less than in biology a great gain, both from the point of view of scien- PREFACE. Vil PREFACE. Vil tific knowledge and from that of philosophical theory. Every great law that is added to our store adds also to our conviction that the universe is run through with Mind. Even so-called Chance, which used to be the " bogie " behind Natural Se- lection, has now been found to illustrate — in the law of Probabilities — the absence of Chance. As Professor Pearson has said: " We recognise that our conception of Chance is now utterly different from that of yore...What we are to under- stand by a chance distribution is one in accord- ance with law, and one the nature of which can, for all practical purposes, be closely predicted." If the universe be pregnant with purpose, as we all wish to believe, why sh&uld not this purpose work itself out by an evolution process under law? — and if under law, why not the law of Proba bilities? We who have our lives insured provide for our children through our knowledge and use of this law; and our plans for their welfare, in most of the affairs of life, are based upon the recognition of it. Who will deny to the Great Purpose a similar resource in producing the uni- verse and in providing for us all?
I add in a concluding section on Literature some references to various books in English, classified under the headings of the chapters of the text. These works will further enlighten the reader, and, if he persevere, possibly make a psy- chologist of him.
J. MARK BALDWIN.
PRINCETON, April, i8g8.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE I. THE SCIENCE OF THE MIND — PSYCHOLOGY. i II. WHAT OUR MINDS HAVE IN COMMON— INTRO- SPECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY 8 III. THE MIND OF THE ANIMAL — COMPARATIVE IV. THE MIND OF THE CHILD— CHILD PSYCHOL- OGY 51 V. THE CONNECTION OF BODY WITH MIND- PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY — MENTAL DIS- EASES IO1 VI. HOW WE EXPERIMENT ON THE MlND — EX- PERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY...122 VII. SUGGESTION AND HYPNOTISM...148 VIII. THE TRAINING OF THE MIND — EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY lf)6 IX. THE INDIVIDUAL MIND AND SOCIETY — SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 20° X. THE GENIUS AND HIS ENVIRONMENT..211 XI. LITERATURE 233 ix LIST OF DIAGRAMS.
FIGURE PAGE Effects of the emotion of pleasure on the expression of the face.._...Frontispiece 1. Origin of instinct by organic selection • • • 35 2. Reflex and voluntary circuits 107 3. Outer surface of the left hemisphere of the brain. no 4. Inner surface of the right hemisphere of the brain. in 5. The speech zone (after Collins) 113 6. Mouth-key 131 7. Apparatus for optical experiment...135 8. Memory curves 140 x THE STORY OF THE MIND.
CHAPTER I.
THE SCIENCE OF THE MIND — PSYCHOLOGY.
PSYCHOLOGY is the science of the mind. It aims to find out all about the mind — the whole story — just as the other sciences aim to find out all about the subjects of which they treat — as- tronomy, of the stars; geology, of the earth; physiology, of the body. And when we wish to trace out the story of the mind, as psychology has done it, we find that there are certain general truths with which we should first acquaint our- selves; truths which the science has been a very long time finding out, but which we can now re- alize without a great deal of explanation. These general truths, we may say, are preliminary to the story itself; they deal rather with the need of defining, first of all, the subject or topic of which the story is to be told.
i. The first such truth is that the mind is not the possession of man alone. Other creatures have minds. Psychology no longer confines itself, as it formerly did, to the human soul, denying to the animals a place in this highest of all the sciences. It finds itself unable to require any test or evi- dence of the presence of mind which the animals do not meet, nor does it find any place at which the story of the mind can begin higher up than 2 THE STORY OF THE MIND.
the very beginnings of life. For as soon as we ask, " How much mind is necessary to start with? " we have to answer, " Any mind at all "; and all the animals are possessed of some of the actions which we associate with mind. Of course, the ascertainment of the truth of this belongs — as the ascertainment of all the truths of nature belongs — to scientific investigation itself. It is the scien- tific man's rule not to assume anything except as he finds facts to support the assumption. So we find a great department of psychology devoted to just this question — i. e., of tracing mind in the animals and in the child, and noting the stages of what is called its "evolution" in the ascending scale of animal life, and its " development " in the rapid growth which every child goes through in the nursery. This gives us two chapters of the story of the mind. Together they are called " Genetic Psychology," having two divisions, " Ani- mal or Comparative Psychology " and " Child Psychology."
2. Another general truth to note at the outset is this: that we are able to get real knowledge about the mind. This may seem at first sight a useless question to raise, seeing that our minds are, in the thought of many, about the only things we are really sure of. But that sort of sureness is not what science seeks. Every science requires some means of investigation, some method of procedure, which is more exact than the mere say-so of common sense; and which can be used over and again by different investigators and under different conditions. This gives a high de- gree of verification and control to the results once obtained. The chemist has his acids, and re- agents, and blowpipes, etc.; they constitute his in- THE SCIENCE OF THE MIND— PSYCHOLOGY. 3 struments, and by using them, under certain con- stant rules, he keeps to a consistent method. So with the physiologist; he has his microscope, his staining fluids, his means of stimulating the tis- sues of the body, etc. The physicist also makes much of his lenses, and membranes, and electrical batteries, and X-ray apparatus. In like manner it is necessary that the psychologist should have a recognised way of investigating the mind, which he can lay before anybody saying: " There, you see my results, you can get them for yourself by the same method that I used."
In fulfilling this requirement the psychologist resorts to two methods of procedure. He is able to investigate the mind in two ways, which are of such general application that anybody of sufficient training to make scientific observations at all can repeat them and so confirm the results. One of these is what is called Introspection. It consists in taking note of one's own mind, as all sorts of changes are produced in it, such as emo- tions, memories, associations of events now gone, etc., and describing everything that takes place. Other persons can repeat the observations with their own minds, and see that what the first re- ports is true. This results in a body of knowl- edge which is put together and called " Introspec- tive Psychology," and one chapter of the story should be devoted to that.
Then the other way we have is that of experi- menting on some one else's mind. We can act on our friends and neighbours in various ways, mak- ing them feel, think, accept, refuse this and that, and then observe how they act. The differences in their action will show the differences in the feel- ings, etc., which we have produced. In pursuing 4 THE STORY OF THE MIND.
this method the psychologist takes a person — called the "subject" or the "re-agent" — into his laboratory, asks him to be willing to follow cer- tain directions carefully, such as holding an elec- tric handle, blowing into a tube, pushing a but- ton, etc., when he feels, sees, or hears certain things; this done with sufficient care, the results are found recorded in certain ways which the psychologist has arranged beforehand. This sec- ond way of proceeding gives results which are gathered under the two headings " Experimental " and " Physiological Psychology." They should also have chapters in our story.
3. There is besides another truth which the psychologist nowadays finds very fruitful for his knowledge of the mind; this is the fact that minds vary much in different individuals, or classes of individuals. First, there is the pronounced differ- ence between healthy minds and diseased minds. The differences are so great that we have to pur- sue practically different methods of treating the diseased, not only as a class apart from the well minds — putting such diseased persons into institutions — but also as differing from one an- other. Just as the different forms of bodily dis- ease teach us a great deal about the body — its degree of strength, its forms of organization and function, its limitations, its heredity, the inter- connection of its parts, etc. — so mental diseases teach us much about the normal mind. This gives another sphere of information which constitutes " Abnormal Psychology " or " Mental Pathology."
There are also very striking variations between individuals even within normal life; well people are very different from one another. All that is commonly meant by character or temperament as THE SCIENCE OF THE MIND— PSYCHOLOGY. 5 distinguishing one person from another is evi- dence of these differences. But really to know all about mind we should see what its variations are, and endeavour to find out why the variations exist. This gives, then, another topic, " Indi- vidual or Variational Psychology." This sub- ject should also have notice in the story.
4. Allied with this the demand is made upon the psychologist that he show to the teacher how to train the mind; how to secure its development in the individual most healthfully and produc- tively, and with it all in a way to allow the varia- tions of endowment which individuals show each to bear its ripest fruit. This is " Educational or Pedagogical Psychology."
5. Besides all these great undertakings of the psychologist, there is another department of fact which he must some time find very fruitful, although as yet he has not been able to investi- gate it thoroughly: he should ask about the place of the mind in the world at large. If we seek to know what the mind has done in the world, what a wealth of story comes to us from the very be- ginnings of history! Mind has done all that has been done: it has built human institutions, indited literature, made science, discovered the laws of Nature, used the forces of the material world, em- bodied itself in all the monuments which stand to testify to the presence of man. What could tell us more of what mind is than this record of what mind has done? The ethnologists are patiently tracing the records left by early man in his uten- sils, weapons, clothing, religious rites, architec- tural remains, etc., and the anthropologists are seeking to distinguish the general and essential from the accidental and temporary in all the his- 6 THE STORY OF THE MIND.
tory of culture and civilization. They are mak- ing progress very slowly, and it is only here and there that principles are being discovered which reveal to the psychologist the necessary modes of action and development of the mind. All this conies under the head of " Race Psychology."
6. Finally, another department, the newest of all, investigates the action of minds when they are thrown together in crowds. The animals herd, the insects swarm, most creatures live in companies; they are gregarious, and man no less is social in his nature. So there is a psychology of herds, crowds, mobs, etc., all put under the heading of "Social Psychology." It asks the question, What new phases of the mind do we find when individuals unite in common action? — or, on the other hand, when they are artificially separated?
We now have with all this a fairly complete idea of what The Story of the Mind should in- clude, when it is all told. Many men are spend- ing their lives each at one or two of these great questions. But it is only as the results are all brought together in a consistent view of that won- derful thing, the mind, that we may hope to find out all that it is. We must think of it as a grow- ing, developing thing, showing its stages of evo- lution in the ascending animal scale, and also in the unfolding of the child; as revealing its nature in every change of our daily lives which we ex- perience and tell to one another or find ourselves unable to tell; as allowing itself to be discovered in the laboratory, and as willing to leave the marks of its activity on the scientist's blackened drum and the dial of the chronoscope; as subject to the limitations of health and disease, needing THE SCIENCE OF THE MIND— PSYCHOLOGY. 7 to be handled with all the resources of the asy- lum, the reformatory, the jail, as well as with the delicacy needed to rear the sensitive girl or to win the love of the bashful maid; as manifesting itself in the development of humanity from the first rude contrivances for the use of fire, the first organizations for defence, and the first inscrip- tions of picture writing, up to the modern inven- tions in electricity, the complex constitutions of government, and the classic productions of liter- ary art; and as revealing its possibilities finally in the brutal acts of the mob, the crimes of a lynch- ing party, and the deeds of collective righteous- ness performed by our humane and religious so- cieties.
It would be impossible, of course, within the limits of this little volume, to give even the main results in so many great chapters of this ambitious and growing science. I shall not attempt that; but the rather select from the various departments certain outstanding results and principles. From these as elevations the reader may see the moun- tains on the horizon, so to speak, which at his leisure, and with better guides, he may explore. The choice of materials from so rich a store has depended also, as the preface states, on the writ- er's individual judgment, and it is quite probable that no one will find the matters altogether wisely chosen. All the great departments now thus briefly described, however, are represented in the following chapters.
THE STORY OF THE MIND.
CHAPTER II.
WHAT OUR MINDS HAVE IN COMMON — INTRO- SPECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY.
OF all the sources now indicated from which the psychologist may draw, that of so-called In- trospective Psychology — the actual reports of what we find going on in our minds from time to time — is the most important. This is true for two great reasons, which make Psychology different from all the other sciences. The first claim which the introspective method has upon us arises from the fact that it is only by it that we can examine the mind directly, and get its events in their purity. Each of us knows himself better than he knows any one else. So this department, in which we deal each with his own consciousness at first hand, is more reliable, if free from error, than any of those spheres in which we examine other per- sons, so long as we are dealing with the. psychol- ogy of the individual. The second reason that this method of procedure is most important is found in the fact that all the other departments of psychology — and with them all the other sci- ences— have to use introspection, after all, to make sure of the results which they get by other methods. For example, the natural scientist, the botanist, let us say, and the physical scientist, the electrician, say, can not observe the plants or the electric sparks without really using his introspection upon what is before him. The light from the plant has to go into his brain and leave a cer- tain effect in his mind, and then he has to use in- trospection to report what he sees. The astrono- WHAT OUR MINDS HAVE IN COMMON. 9 mer who has bad eyes can not observe the stars well or discover the facts about them, because his introspection in reporting what he sees pro- ceeds on the imperfect and distorted images com- ing in from his defective.eyesight. So a man given to exaggeration, who is not able to report truthfully what he remembers, can not be a good botanist, since this defect in introspection will render his observation of the plants unreliable.
In practice the introspective method has been most important, and the development of psychol- ogy has been up-to very recently mainly due to its use. As a consequence, there are many gen- eral principles of mental action and many laws of mental growth already discovered which should in the first instance engage our attention. They constitute the main framework of the building; and we should master them well before we go on to find the various applications which they have in the other departments of the subject.
The greater results of "Introspective" or, as it is very often called, " General " psychology may be summed up in a few leading principles, which sound more or less abstract and difficult, but which will have many concrete illustrations in the subsequent chapters. The facts of experience, the actual events which we find taking place in our minds, fall naturally into certain great divi- sions. These are very easily distinguished from one another. The first distinction is covered by the popularly recognised difference between "thought and conduct," or "knowledge and life." On the one hand, the mind is looked at as receiv- ing, taking in, learning; and on the other hand, as acting, willing, doing this or that. Another great distinction contrasts a third mental condition, 10 THE STORY OF THE MIND.
" feeling," with both of the other two. We say a man has knowledge, but little feeling, head but no heart; or that he knows and feels the right but does not live up to it.
I. On the side of Reception we may first point out the avenues through which our experiences come to us: these are the senses — a great num- ber, not simply the five special senses of which we were taught in our childhood. Besides Sight, Hearing, Taste, Smell, and Touch, we now know of certain others very definitely. There are Muscle sensations coming from the moving of our limbs, Organic sensations from the inner vital organs, Heat and Cold sensations which are no doubt dis- tinct from each other, Pain sensations probably having their own physical apparatus, sensations from the Joints, sensations of Pressure, of Equili- brium of the body, and a host of peculiar sensa- tional conditions which, for all we know, may be separate and distinct, or may arise from combi- nations of some of the others. Such, for exam- ple, are the sensations which are felt when a cur- rent of electricity is sent through the arm.
All these give the mind its material to work upon; and it gets no material in the first in- stance from any other source. All the things we know, all our opinions, knowledges, beliefs, are absolutely dependent at the start upon this sup- ply of material from our senses; although, as we shall see, the mind gets a long way from its first subjection to this avalanche of sensations which come constantly pouring in upon it from the ex- ternal world. Yet this is the essential and capital function of Sensation: to supply the material on which the mind does the work in its subsequent thought and action.
WHAT OUR MINDS HAVE IN COMMON. n Next comes the process by which the mind holds its material for future use, the process of Memory; and with it the process by which it com- bines its material together in various useful forms, making up things and persons out of the material which has been received and remembered — called Association of Ideas, Thinking, Reasoning, etc. All these processes used to be considered as separate " faculties " of the soul and as showing the mind doing different things. But that view is now com- pletely given up. Psychology now treats the ac- tivity of the mind in a much more simple way. It says: Mind does only one thing; in all these so- called faculties we have the mind doing this one thing only on the different materials which come and go in it. This one thing is the combining, or holding together, of the elements which first come to it as sensations, so that it can act on a group of them as if they were only one and represented only one external thing. Let me illustrate this single and peculiar sort of process as it goes on in the mind.
We may ask how the child apprehends an orange out there on the table before him. It can not be said that the orange goes into the child's mind by any one of its senses. By sight he gets only the colour and shape of the orange, by smell he gets only its odour, by taste its sweet- ness, and by touch its smoothness, rotundity, etc. Furthermore, by none of these senses does he find out the individuality of the orange, or dis- tinguish it from other things which involve the same or similar sensations — say an apple. It is easy to see that after each of the senses has sent in its report something more is necessary: the combining of them all together in the same place I2 THE STORY OF THE MIND.
and at the same time, the bringing up of an ap- propriate name, and with that a sort of relating or distinguishing of this group of sensations from those of the apple. Only then can we say that the knowledge, " here is an orange," has been reached. Now this is the one typical way the mind has of acting, this combining of all the items or groups of items into ever larger and more fruit- ful combinations. This is called Apperception. The mind, we say, "apperceives " the orange when it is able to treat all the separate sensations together as standing for one thing. And the va- rious circumstances under which the mind does this give the occasions for the different names which the earlier psychology used for marking off different "faculties."
These names are still convenient, however, and it may serve to make the subject clear, as well as to inform the reader of the meaning of these terms, to show how they all refer to this one kind of mental action.
The case of the orange illustrates what is usu- ally called Perception. It is the case in which the result is the knowledge of an actual object in the outside world. When the same process goes on after the actual object has been removed it is Memory. When it goes on again in a way which is not controlled by reference to such an outside object — usually it is a little fantastic, as in dreams or fancy, but often it is useful as being so well done as to anticipate what is really true in the outside world — then it is Imagination. If it is actually untrue, but still believed in, we call it Il- lusion or Hallucination. When it uses mere sym- bols, such as words, gestures, writing, etc., to stand for whole groups of things, it is Thinking WHAT OUR MINDS HAVE IN COMMON. 13 or Reasoning. So we may say that what the mind arrives at through this its one great way of act- ing, no matter which of these forms it takes on, except in the cases in which it is not true in its results to the realities, is Knowledge.