FINAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIS PHILOSOPHY. 137 This change in the spirit of his philosophy has been ascribed to the influence of a distinguished contem porary, who has recently retired from the chair at Berlin of which Fichte was the first occupant, — much to the disappointment of his numerous admirers. It seems to us that it was the natural and inevitable result of his own principles and mode of thought, and that it was even theoretically contained in the very first exposition of his doctrine, although it had not then attained in his own mind that vivid reality with which it shines, as a prophet-like inspiration, through out his later writings. In this view we are fully borne out by the letter to Jacobi in 1795, and the article from the Literatur Zeitung, already quoted.* In the development of the system, whether in the mind of its author or in that of any learner, the starting point is necessarily the individual consciousness, — the finite Ego. But when the logical processes of the understanding have performed their office, and led us from this, the nearest of our spiritual experiences, to that higher point in which all finite individuality dis appears in the great thought of an all-embracing Con sciousness, — an Infinite Ego, — it becomes unnecessary to reiterate the initial steps of the investigation, — to imitate the gropings of the schoolboy rather than the comprehensive vision of the man. From this higher point of view Fichte now looked forth on the universe and human life, and saw there no longer the subjective phenomena of a limited and finite nature, but the har monious, although diversified, manifestation of the One Universal Being, — the self-revelation of the Absolute — * See pages 78 and 81.
N 2 138 MEMOIR OF FICHTE.
the infinitely varied forms under which God becomes " manifest in the flesh."
The first traces of this change in his speculative posi tion are observable in his " Bestimmung des Menschen," published in 1799, in which, as we have already said, may be found the most systematic exposition of his phi losophy which has been attempted in a popular form. In 1801 appeared his " Antwortschreiben an Rein- hold" (Answer to Reinhold), and his " Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grossere Publicum iiber das eigent- liche Wesen der neuesten Philosophic" (Sun-clear In telligence to the general public on the essential nature of the New Philosophy.) These he intended to follow up in 1802 with a more strictly scientific and com plete account of the Wissenschaftslehre, designed for the philosophical reader only. But he was induced to postpone this purpose, partly on account of the recent modification of his own philosophical point of view, and partly because the attention of the literary world was now engrossed by the brilliant and poetic Natur- Philosophie of Schelling. Before communicating to the world the work which should be handed down to pos terity as the finished institute of his theory, it ap peared to him necessary, first of all to prepare the public mind for its reception by a series of introductory applications of his system to subjects of general in terest. But this purpose was likewise laid aside for a time, — principally, it would seem, from dissatisfaction with the reception which his works had hitherto re ceived, from the harassing misconceptions and misre presentations which he had encountered, and from a doubt, amounting ahnost to hopelessness, of making his views intelligible to the general public. These ACADEMIC PROJECTS. 139 feelings occasioned a silence of four years on his part, and are characteristically expressed in the prefaces to several of his subsequent works.
In the meantime, although Fichte retired for a sea son from the prominent position which he had hitherto occupied in the public eye, it was impossible for him to remain inactive. Shut out from communication with the " reading public," he sought to gather around him fit hearers to whom he might impart the high message with which he was charged. This was indeed his favourite mode of communication: in the lecture- room his fiery eloquence found a freer scope than the form of a literary work would permit. A circle of pupils soon gathered around him at Berlin. His pri vate lectures were attended by the most distinguished scholars and statesmen: TV. Schlegel, Kotzebue, the Minister Schrotter, the High Chancellor Beyme, and the Minister von Alstentein, were found among his auditory.
In 1804 an opportunity presented itself of resuming his favourite vocation of an academic teacher. This was an invitation from Russia to assume the chair of Philosophy in the University of Charkow. The exist ing state of literary culture in that country, however, did not seem to offer a promising field for his exer tions; and another proposal, which appeared to open the way to a more useful application of his powers, occurring at the same time, he declined the invitation to Charkow. The second invitation was likewise a foreign one, — from Bavaria, namely, to the Philosophic chair at Landshut. It was accompanied by pecuniary proposals of a most advantageous nature. But expe rience had taught Fichte to set a much higher value 140 MEMOIR OF FICHTE.
upon the internal conditions of such an office, than upon its outward advantages. In desiring an academic chair, he sought only an opportunity of carrying out his plan of a strictly philosophical education, with a view to the future reception of the Wissenschaftslehre in its most perfect form. To this purpose he had de voted his life, and no pecuniary considerations could induce him to lay it aside. But its thorough fulfilment demanded absolute freedom of teaching and writing as a primary condition, and therefore this was the first point to which Fichte looked in any appointment which might be offered to him. He frankly laid his views on this subject before the Bavarian Government. " The plan," he says, " might perhaps be carried forward without the support of any government, although this has its difficulties. But if any enlightened government should resolve to support it, it would, in my opinion, acquire thereby a deathless fame, and become the bene factor of humanity." Whether the Bavarian Govern ment was dissatisfied with the conditions required, does not appear, — but the negotiations on this subject were shortly afterwards broken off.
At last, however, an opportunity occurred of carry ing out his views in Prussia itself. Through the in fluence of his friends, Beyme and Altenstein, with the Minister Hardenberg, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy at the University of Erlangen, with the liberty of returning to Berlin during the winter to con tinue his philosophical lectures there. In May 1805 he entered upon his new duties with a brilliant success which seemed to promise a repetition of the epoch of Jena. Besides the course of lectures to his own stu dents, in which he took a comprehensive survey of POPULAR WRITINGS. 141 the conditions and method of scientific knowledge in general, he delivered a series of private lectures to his fellow-professors and others, in which he laid down his views in a more abstract form. In addition to these labours, he delivered to the whole students of the University his celebrated lectures on the " Nature of the Scholar." These remarkable discourses must have had a powerful effect on the young and ardent minds to which they were addressed. Never, perhaps, were the moral dignity and sacredness of the literary calling set forth with more impressive earnestness.
Encouraged by the brilliant success which had at tended his prelections at Erlangen, Fichte now resolved to give forth to the world the results of his later studies, and especially to embody, in some practical and generally intelligible form, his great conception of the eternal revelation of God in consciousness. Accord ingly, on his return to Berlin in the winter of 1805-6, he published the course of lectures to which we have just alluded, " Ueber das Wesen des Gelehrten" (On the Nature of the Scholar), a translation of which, by the present writer, is in the hands of the English public. The Scholar is here represented as he who, possessed and actuated by the Divine Idea, labours to obtain for that Idea an outward manifestation in the world, either by cultivating in his fellow-men the capacity for its reception (as Teacher); or by directly embodying it in visible forms (as Artist,* Ruler, Lawgiver, &c.) This publication was immediately followed by another course, which had been delivered at Berlin during the previous year under the title of " Grundziige des gegenwartigen Zeitalters" (Characteristics of the Pre sent Age], of which an English version has also been 142 MEMOIR OF FICHTE.
published by the present writer. It is an attempt to apply the great principles of Transcendentalism to General History, and abounds in searching and com prehensive views of the progress, prospects, and destiny of man. This series of popular works was completed by the publication, in the spring of 1806, of the " An- weisung zum Seligen Leben, oder die Religionslehre" (The Doctrine of Religion}, — the most important of all his later writings, which contains the final results of his philosophy in their most comprehensive and exalted application. Of this admirable work a trans lation will shortly be presented to the English public.
Fichte's long-cherished hopes of founding an acade mical institution in accordance with his philosophical views, seemed now about to be realized. During the winter vacation, Hardenberg communicated with him on the subject of a new organization of the University at Erlangen. Fichte drew up a plan for this purpose, which was submitted to the Minister in 1806. But fortune again interposed: the outbreak of the war with France prevented his resuming the duties which had been so well begun.
The campaign of 1805 had subjected the greater part of Germany to the power of Napoleon. Prussia, almost alone, maintained her independence, surrounded on every side by the armies or vassals of France. Her struggle with the giant-power of the continent was of short duration. On the 9th October 1806 war was declared, — on the 14th the double battle of Auerstadt and Jena was fought, — and on the 25th Napoleon entered Berlin. In rapid succession, all the fortresses of Prussia fell into the hands of the invader.
WAR OF LIBERATION. 143 Fichte eagerly desired permission to accompany the army which his country sent forth against her invaders. The hopes of Germany hung upon its progress; its success would bring freedom and peace, — its failure, military despotism, with all its attendant horrors. Opposed to the well-trained troops of France, elated with victory and eager for new conquests, the defenders of Germany needed all the aid which high principle and ardent patriotism could bring to their cause. To maintain such a spirit in the army by such addresses as afterwards appeared under the celebrated title of " Reden an die Deutschen," Fichte conceived to be his appropriate part in the general resistance to the enemy; — and for that purpose he desired to be near the troops. " If the orator," he said, " must content himself with speech — if he may not fight in your ranks to prove the truth of his principles by his actions, by his contempt of danger and of death, by his presence in the most perilous places of the combat, — this is but the fault of his age, which has separated the calling of the scholar from that of the warrior. But he feels that if he had been taught to carry arms, he would have been behind none in courage; he laments that his age has denied him the privilege accorded to J^schylus and Cervantes, to make good his words by manly deeds. He would restore that time if he could; and in the present circumstances, which he looks upon as bringing with them a new phase of his existence, he would proceed rather to deeds than to words. But since he may only speak, he would speak fire and sword. Nor would he do this securely and away from danger. In his discourses he would give utterance to truths belonging to this subject with all the clearness 144 MEMOIR OF FICHTE.
with which he himself sees them, with all the earnest ness of which he is capable, — utter them avowedly and with his own name, — truths which should cause him to be held worthy of death before the tribunal of the enemy. And on that account he would not faint heartedly conceal himself, but speak boldly before your face, that he might either live free in his fatherland, or perish in its overthrow."
The rapid progress of the war prevented compliance with his wish, but the spirit which gave it birth was well appreciated by Frederick- William. " Your idea, dear Fichte," says the reply to his proposal, " does you honour. The King thanks you for your offer; — perhaps we may make use of it afterwards. But the King must first speak to his army by deeds: then your eloquence may turn to account the advantages of victory."
The defeat of Jena on the 14th October, and the rapid march of Napoleon upon Berlin, which remained defenceless, rendered it necessary for all who had identified themselves with the cause of their country to seek refuge in instant flight. Fichte's resolution was soon taken: — he would share the dangers of his fatherland, rather than purchase safety by submission. He left Berlin, in company with his friend Hufeland, on the 18th October, a few days before the occupation of the city by the French army. Fichte's wife re mained in Berlin to take charge of their own and of Hufeland's household, while the two friends fled be yond the Oder.
Fichte took up his residence at Konigsberg to await the result of the war. The uncertainty of his future RESIDENCE AT KONIGSBERG. 145 prospects, and the dangerous situation in which he had left his family, did not prevent him from pursuing his vocation as a public teacher, even in the face of many hindrances. During the winter he delivered a course of philosophical lectures in the University, having been appointed provisional professor of philosophy during his residence. He steadfastly resisted the earnest desire of his wife to return to Berlin during its occupancy by the French, conceiving it to be his duty to submit to every privation and discomfort rather than give an indirect sanction to the presence of the enemy by sitting down quietly under their rule, although he could now do so with perfect safety to himself. " Such a return," he says, " would stand in direct contradic tion to the declarations made in my address to the King, of which address my present circumstances are the result. And if no other keep me to my word, it is just so much more my duty to hold myself to it. It is precisely when other scholars of note in our country are wavering, that he who has been hitherto true, should stand the firmer in his uprightness."
During his residence in Konigsberg, he renewed many of the friendships which he had formed there in early life, and he now sought to add to his comfort by the removal of his wife and child from Berlin. This plan was frustrated by a dangerous illness by which his wife was overtaken, and which is referred to in the following extracts from letters written at this time: — jFtcIjte an Seiner jFrau.
" Yesterday I received the intelligence of thy illness. Thy few lines have drawn from me tears, — I know o 146 MEMOIR OF FICHTE.
not whether of grief, joy, or love. How blind we are! I have dreaded everything but this. Naturally thou canst not have fallen into serious illness; something extraordinary must have befallen thee. I hoped that thou wouldst have borne our short separation well, especially on account of the duties which were laid upon thee. I recommended these thoughts to thee at our parting, and I have, since that time, enforced them in my letters. Strong souls, — and thou art no weak one, — make themselves stronger thus: — and yet!
" Yet think not, dearest, that I would chide about thy illness. Rather, in faith and trust, do I already receive thee into my arms, as if thou wert really present, a new gift given unto me, with even added value. Thou wert recovering, although thy lines are feeble; at least I trust to thy own assurance rather than to that of friends who would reach me the cup of despondency in measured doses. Thou knowest me; — thou knowest that untruth does not suit me; — thou wilt continue truthful towards me. This letter will find thee living and in health.
****** " One passage of Bernhardi's letter has deeply touched me; — that where he speaks of our Hermann. Let the boy be pure and noble, — (and why should he not, since he has certainly not one drop of false blood from thee, and I know that there is no such thing in me which he could inherit?) — and let him learn, what he can. If I but had you both, — you who are my riches, — in my arms again, that I might try whether I could improve the treasure! Live thou to love me and thy boy; — I and he, if he has a drop of my blood in his veins, will try to recompense thee for it."
REMOVAL TO COPENHAGEN. 147 " Again, thou dear one, had I to struggle against the anguish which secretly assailed me because I had no tidings of thee yesterday, when I received your let ter of the 15th, delayed probably in its transmission. God be praised that your recovery goes on well! You receive now regular and good news from me; our friend also must now have been with thee for a long time; and when you receive this letter you will pro bably find yourself enabled to prepare for your journey to me. You will, indeed, certainly not receive it before the close of this so sorrowful year. God grant to thee, and to ah1 brave hearts who deserve it, a bettef new one!"
****** " Do not come here, but stay where thou art, for I am very dissatisfied here, and with good grounds; and if, as seems probable, a favourable change of affairs should take place, I shall endeavour to return to my old quarters, and so be with you again. This was the meaning of what I wrote to you in my last letter, — but I had not then come to a settled resolution about it.
" Live in health and peace, and in hope of better times, as I do. I bless thee from my inmost heart, am with thee in spirit, and rejoice in the happy anticipation of seeing thee again. Ever thine." — The hopes which were founded on the result of the battle of Eylau (8th February 1807), and which seem to be referred to in the preceding letter, were speedily dispelled; and the subsequent progress of the war rendered Fichte's residence at Konigsberg no longer safe or desirable. His communications with his family 148 MEMOIR OF FICHTE.
had also become very irregular and uncertain. He consequently determined on a removal to Copenhagen, there to await the termination of the war. He left Konigsberg in the beginning of June, and, after a short stay at Memel, arrived at the Danish capital about the middle of the following month. The im possibility of engaging in any continuous occupation during this period of uncertainty and hazard seems to have exposed him, as well as his family, to consider able pecuniary difficulties and privations. On the other hand, his unswerving devotion to his country, and the sacrifices he had cheerfully made for her sake, had gained for him the sincere esteem of the Prussian Government, and no inconsiderable influence in its counsels. At the end of August 1807 peace was con cluded, and Fichte returned to his family, after a separation of nearly a year.
With the return of peace, the Prussian Government determined to repair the loss of political importance by fostering among its citizens the desire of intellectual distinction and the love of free speculation. It seemed to the eminent men who then stood around the throne of Frederick -William, that the temple of German in dependence had now to be rebuilt from its foundations; that the old stock of liberty having withered, or been swept away in the tornado which had just passed over their heads, a new growth must take its place, springing from a deeper root and quickened by a fresher stream. One of the first means which sug gested itself for the attainment of this purpose, was the establishment at Berlin of a new school of higher education, free from the imperfections of the old Uni versities, from which, as from the spiritual heart of the PLAN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN. 149 community, a current of life and energy might be poured forth through all its members. Fichte was chosen by the Minister as the man before all others fitted for this task, and unlimited power was given him to frame for the new University a constitution which should ensure its efficiency and success. 'No employment could have been more congenial to Fichte's inclinations; — it presented him at last with the long- wished-for opportunity of developing a systematic plan of human instruction, founded on the spiritual nature of man. He entered with ardour upon the undertaking, and towards the end of 1807 his plan was completed and laid before the Minister. Its chief feature was perfect unity of purpose, complete subordination of every branch of instruction to the one great object of all teaching, — not the inculcation of opinion, but the spiritual culture and elevation of the student. The institution was to be an organic whole; — an assem blage, not of mere teachers holding various and per haps opposite views, and living only to disseminate these, but of men animated by a common purpose, and steadily pursuing one recognised object. The office of the Professor was not to repeat verbally what already stood printed in books, and might be found there; but to exercise a diligent supervision over the studies of the pupil, and to see that he fully acquired, by his own effort, and as a personal and independent possession, the branch of knowledge which was the object of his studies. It was thus a school for the scientific use of the understanding, in which positive or historical knowledge was to be looked upon only as a vehicle of instruction, not as an ultimate end: — spiritual independence, intellectual strength, moral digo 2 150 MEMOIR OF FICHTE.
nity, — these were the great ends to the attainment of which everything else was but the instrument. The plan met with distinguished approbation from the Minister to whom it was presented; and if, when the University was actually established some time after wards, the ordinary and more easily fulfilled constitu tion of such schools was followed, it is to be attributed to the management of the undertaking having passed into other hands, and to the difficulty of finding teachers who would cooperate in the accomplishment of the scheme.
But the misfortunes of his country induced Fichte to make a yet more direct attempt to rouse the fallen spirit of liberty, and once more to awaken in the hearts of his countrymen the desire of independence, which now lay crushed beneath a foreign yoke. Prussia was the last forlorn hope of German freedom, and it now seemed to he whoUy at the mercy of the conqueror. The native government could be little else than a mockery, while the capital of the country was still occupied by French troops. Fichte was well aware of the dangers attending any open attempt to excite a spirit of opposition to the French, but he was not accustomed to weigh danger against duty; with him there was but short pause between conviction and action. " The sole question," said he to himself, " is this: — canst thou hope that the good to be attained is greater than the danger? The good is the re awakening and elevation of the people; against which my personal danger is not to be reckoned, but for which it may rather be most advantageously incurred. My family and my son shall not want the support of the nation, — the least of the advantages of having a " REDEN AN DIE DEUTSCHEN." 151 martyr for their father. This is the best choice. I could not devote my life to a better end."
Thus heroically resolved that he, at least, should not be wanting in his duty to his fatherland, he delivered his celebrated " Reden an die Deutschen"- (Addresses to the German People) — in the academical buildings in Berlin during the winter of 1807-8. His voice was often drowned by the trumpets of the French troops, and well-known spies frequently made their appearance among his auditory; but he continued, undismayed, to direct all the fervour of his eloquence against the despotism of Napoleon and the system of spoiling and oppression under which his country groaned. It is somewhat singular, that while Davoust threatened the chief literary men of Berlin with ven geance if they should either speak or write upon the political state of Germany, Fichte should have remained unmolested — the only one who did speak out, openly and fearlessly, against the foreign yoke.
The " Reden an die Deutschen" belong to the his tory of Germany, and in its literary annals they are well entitled to a distinguished and honourable place. Among the many striking phenomena of that eventful period there is none that exceeds in real interest and instructiveness this one of a literary man, single-handed, and surrounded by foreign troops, setting before him, as a duty which he of all others was called upon to fulfil, the task of a people's regeneration. Uniting the patriot's enthusiasm with the prophet's inspiration, Fichte raised a voice whose echoes rung through every corner of Germany, and summoned to the rescue of his country all that remained of nobleness and devotion among her sons. It was to no vain display of military 152 MEMOIR OF F1CHTE.