(7) The so-called psycho-galvanic reflex. Here the subject sits in a quiet room with two non-polarizable electrodes upon two parts of the body. The electrodes are connected to a sensitive galvanometer. A definite deflection of the needle is obtained. Emotional stimuli are then given, and their effect noted by the deflection of the needle. So far in our laboratory this method las not been found serviceable. It is hoped, however, that with an improved technic, the action currents in the heart revealed by string galvanometer can be made to yield serviceable results.
The so-called expressive methods. These consist of the HEREDITARY MODES OF RESPONSE: EMOTIONS 211 recording of the respiratory changes, vaso-motor changes; auto- matic writing and drawing (planchette). Such methods in gen- eral ha,ve proven of slight value. The respiratory curve is a very sensitive indicator (showing conditioned reflexes quite clearly), but it is subject to so many influences that the significant changes are often obscured and their interpretation is made difficult. This is equally true of vaso-motor changes.
Substitution of Stimulus: Attachments and Detachments. — Under the action of environmental factors f habit i ations which originally did not call out emotional response come a for to r)r> so. Xhis__eiilargement of the range of stimuli capable of calling out emotional activity is responsible largely for the pp^plpvity WP SPP in thp pTnotjorml life of the flrjnlt- We obtain some of the clearest and at the same time some of the simplest examples of stimulus substitution of this type in the animal world. In 1905 the author while working with rats had a small trapdoor in the home alley in a maze. The animals in running the final lap would walk over the trap, throw it, and thus shut themselves off in the food box. The trap sank somewhat as the animals passed over it and made considerable noise when released (noise and lack of support, see page 199). After running over it once or twice, the animals showed every sign of fear — crouching, trem- bling, panting, defecating. They refused to eat. After two or three more trials, they began to jump the whole trap. The noise and the slight sinking of the trap which so terrified them was thus avoided, but nevertheless the fear reaction remained. Even after the trap had been removed and the floor made perfectly smooth, the rats continued for many trips to jump at the old position of the trap, springing over just as though the trap were actually present. Every evidence of fear remained. We see the same substitutions very clearly in the horse. If a horse is vio- lently frightened at a certain point on the road by a terrify- ing object (a rolling paper in one observed case), it may exhibit the fear reaction when again passing over that part of the road. although the terrifying object is no longer present. A shaky bridge will make a sensitive horse terror-stricken, and this will endure long after the bridge has been made of concrete.
212 PSYCHOLOGY The same phenomenon is clearly observable in children. As was brought out above, they show little fear of animals. If, how- ever, one animal succeeds in arousing fear, any moving furry animal thereafter may1 arouse it. In onei observed case a child at 180 days had a small dog tossed into its carriage. She became terrified and thereafter showed marked reactions not only to dogs but even to rapid mechanically moving toy animals. At 600 days she was placed on the floor near her mother and father and two children with whom she had been playing. A very tame white mouse was placed on the floor near her. She watched it for a moment, her lips puckered, she shook slowly from side to side, squirmed, retracted hands and arms, broke into a cry, scrambled to her feet and fell headlong into her father's arms.
The emotional transfers begin very early in life. 'The fol- lowing diary of one of the infants under observation in the lab- oratory is clearly expressive of the process: Lee, 67, 80 and 87 days of age. When first laid on the couch (where grasping reflex was tested) she would smile and gurgle on each of the above dates, but after testing the grasping reflex, she would cry the moment she was put back on the couch. When picked up she would stop, and when put down she would start to cry. If left on the couch for any length of time, she would stop crying, but if the experimenter approached her or touched her hands with the grasping rod, she would immediately start to cry.
94 days of ag&. She was laid on the couch by her mother. She gurgled and smiled. The mother then took her up and held her for a few minutes and again put her down. Again she smiled and gurgled. The experimenter then tried out the grasp- ing reflex upon each hand. She cried loudly and struggled. As the experimenter first approached her with the rod to make this test she did not cry, but when the rod was put into her hand she began to whimper and actually cried before lifting was begun. After the test the mother took her up and held heruntil she be- came quiet. She was laid down, but immediately began to cry. The mother again took her up and quieted her and put her down, the same result. Repeated, with the same result.
101 days of age. The above conditioned reflex did. not carrv Dver completely for the week. When her mother first laid her e couch she did not cry. She was quite restless, however.
The first contact of the rod in the left hand caused only a whim- HEREDITARY MODES OF RESPONSE: EMOTIONS 213 per. This became stronger on touching her right hand. She cried outright as soon as the rod was raised and before she had supported very much of her weight.
115 days of age. As soon as the mother was seated with the baby in her lap, the experimenter entered the room and tried to put a piece of candy in her hand (earlier tests had been made upon the eye-hand coordination). She began immediately to whimper and then to cry. This in all probability was the carry- ing over of the conditioned reflex, i.e., the visual stimulus of the experimenter was enough to set off the crying reflex.
The fear reactions we see in the dark, in graveyards at night, at lightning, and in many other definite situations, probably belong in the conditioned emotional reaction class. We would put all of the definite phobias (where the reaction is to a definite situation or object) in this class. Such reactions are more numerous in individuals of the unstable emotional type, and espe- cially among frontier and primitive people where every crackling of a twig or cry of an animal or shaking of a bough may be fraught with danger.
Rage, likewise, is capable of being attached now to one object, now to another, in an ever-widening series. That is, given an original situation that will arouse rage (page 200), and attach- ments will occur whenever conditions are at hand for the arousal of conditioned, reflexes. An individual hampers the use of the child 's arms and legs, constrains it, holds it badly when dressing it (original condition for arousing rage) — soon the mere sight of that individual arouses the rage components. Finally an entire stranger whose appearance is even slightly similar to that of the first individual may set off the responses.6 The transfers or conditioning observed in love are seen to best advantage in the psychiatric clinic. However, such substi- tutions are seen in every-day life in profusion. The mother who has lost a child may put the same loving care upon the child's crib, clothing or toys that she would put upon the child itself. The man who has lost his wife may exhibit toward his daughter 6 The conversation of adults often contains such expressions as the following: "I can't stand that person," "I have an instinctive aversion to one who looks like that." A good many such aversions (avoidance reactions) „ have their roots in such substitutions.
214 PSYCHOLOGY 214 PSYCHOLOGY much of the teiider arid respectful solicitude that he would shower upon his wife. We shall not attempt to enlarge further upon attachments of the type we see in love, since in recent years the subject has received sufficient attention at the hands of the psychoanalytic school. A great many of the so-called transfers we see in love probably belong under the vaguer type of behavior discussed below under "emotional outlets."
In general, then, it seems safe to say that when an emotionally exciting object stimulates the subject simultaneously with one not emotionally exciting,, the latter may in time (often after one such joint stimulation) arouse the same emotional reaction as the former. It is probable that conditioned reflexes of the second, third and succeeding orders are also continually arising. In the process, the reaction pattern probably gets broken up to' a large extent. Part reactions belonging to love, rage and fear might all appear in the reaction to such a substituted stimulus.
In addition to this sudden and abrupt type of substitution, which undoubtedly belongs in the class of conditioned reflexes, there are the "attachments" and "detachments" to persons, places and things which come by the slow process of. associative or habit connection. They probably do not differ in origin from the type just considered except for the increased length of time required for their formation.
Emotional Outlets; Diffusion.— On page 197 we spoke of changes in the general level of activity due to emotional disturb- ance. We spoke there of a normal, of a high and of a low level. Probably if an individual were perfectly balanced, the distribu- tion of emotional activity would be uniform and all organized activity would share equally, that is, there would be a mere change in level. But few individuals possess that perfect balance which would make this possible. Furthermore, society and one's <>wn organization often make emotional outlets impossible along certain lines. When emotional expression is blockedmjjyt one region, outlet seems to take place somewhere else^An illustra- tion will make the point clear: A is insulted by a larger man, or by an older or a younger man, or by one from whom he is receiv- ing his daily bread. The instinct and habit organization of A HEREDITARY MODES OF RESPONSE? EMOTIONS 215 would lead to an attack, or at least to its equivalent — a strong- verbal retort. But other features in the total situation (the fact that he is larger, older, younger, etc.) inhibit these outlets. The emotional pressure, however, has been aroused. He may pro- ceed to his office, fire his bookkeeper or office boy or terrorize his stenographer. One's family often suffers most in such cases. If a man's wife causes the emotional rise, the children are apt to suffer. The outlet, however, may not always be a harsh word or a blow. If the emotion partakes of the fear or rage com- ponents, the blow or harsh word is most frequent. If the thwarted emotion is of the love type, the final outlet may be exhibited by showering kind words or benefits upon some one other than the person calling out but thwarting the love emotion. If the thwarting is brought about by the death of the loved object, the outlet may be found in grief or suicide.
Human life is full of such outlets. If society as a whole puts on too many restrictions (rage) and the thwarted individual is not well-balanced, the outlet may be through burglary or vandal- ism. In balanced individuals it may have its outlet through swearing or in privately railing at the restrictions of society.
In certain individuals, either through inferior constitution or the narrowness or restrictiveness of their environment, no ex- ternal outlet seems to be possible. The emotional drainage expresses itself in some form of attitude (page 217); by with- drawing or shrinkage from contact with fellow humans of any kind; in drink or drugs; in ruminations, day-dreams and air- castles — that is, there is a language outlet.
The point which rationalizes all such behavior seems to be, namely, that the individual by so reacting gets relaxation and freedom from emotional pressure. Popularly we speak of "working off" the emotion, that "one's rage is cooled" by this or that. The study of these various outlets when they assume pathological form and interfere with the remaining actions of the individual or of those organized functions which society demands of each individual, and of the reshaping of such individuals, belongs to psychiatry. We see, however, the same factors at work even in "normal" individuals, and our training 216 PSYCHOLOGY as psychologists is not complete until we are able to note the signs of emotional mal-adjustment.
We have not the evidence at hand to affirm the view that all of the phenomena seen in diffusion belong to the conditioned re- flex realm. The activity seems to be too little stereotyped and entirely too complex to belong in that category. The attachment is not focalized. Probably the simplest way of stating the gen- erally observed fact is that too great emotional pressure is drained off through whatever channel environmental (social) and hered- itary factors make possible.
Consolidation Among Emotion, Instinct and Habit; Atti- tudes.— Observation seems to show that ^ombmations_or ^integra- tions occur among emotional, matin fttivft anrl Tiahit fl.ftt.iyit.ifts- Our discussion of these integrations will be handicapped to some extent by our not having had opportunity to study instinct and habit. Possibly the activities we see in ' ' anger ' ' or its more active attitude, " fighting," best illustrate the points to be presented. Angex as we see it exhibited in the insect world probably remains on the emotion-instinct level (hereditary). Habit activities are at a minimum in these animals (though not wholly lacking). In the human race certainly the exciting stimulus is usually one which hampers, jostles, crowds or constrains the individual — the stimulus to rage. The instinctive fa.ftt.nrs are striking out with the arms and hands, grasping, running toward the object, prob- ably biting it, the while imflHiing thr lipn Defensive move- ments also occur of the instinctive kind. The TifJhit fflPf/vpo ex- press themselves in the scientific "form" of attack and defense: the way the arms are held to avoid giving the enemy an opening, planting the blow on a vulnerable spot — the eyes or the solar plexus, etc.— and in the stance of the feet. The whole group is integrated, the part reactions work together. The individual becomes a fighting-defending, unitary action mass. If the envi- ronmental factors are such that actual fighting cannot occur, the subject assumes the ' ' defiant ' ' attitude. All three factors are still present even in the attitude. Many of the emotion, instinct and habit action tendencies are constrained by social factors. The emphasis has then, of course, to fall back on the implicit emo- tional components of the actioii mass.
HEREDITARY MODES OF RESPONSE: EMOTIONS 217 In the above, rage predominated as the emotional constituent, the hereditary attack and defense movement as the instinct, and the' trained activities as the habitual. Probably all other forms of emotion — those of the native or more fundamental type, as love and fear, and the broken up, combined and con- solidated types which we get through substitution — show the types of combination shown above. To attempt to list these, to show their history and formation through the process of substi- tution and consolidation, would require a volume (and a very necessary one) of its own. Only a few will be touched upon here. The so-called submissive or inferiority attitude shows itself at once as having fear as the most prominent emotional element. The instinctive factor may not be clearly overt, but it is in gen- eral. It manifests itself in shrinking, submission and avoiding — sometimes with the body as a whole, sometimes with special organs, as the lips or eyes. The habitual factor shows itself espe- cially in the language behavior of the adult — hastening to agree, avoiding an argument, and the hesitant voice.
In the sphere of love there are numerous attitudes as shown by the popular expressions "lovelorn," "lovesick," "tender- ness," "sympathy." More fundamental and prominent atti- tudes are those of "shyness," "shame," "embarrassment," "jealousy," "envy," "hate," "pride," "suspicion," "resent- ment," "anguish" and " anxiety. "/fThere are many combina- tions of emotional habit and instinctive factors in all of these attitudes. They actually function by limiting the range of stimuli to which the person is sensitive. For the individual they are fundamental attributes of ^character, as much a part of him as his arms or legs or his method of attacking a new problem.
This very superficial analysis is not at all commensurate with the role these attitudes play in the life of the individual. In studying the life history of any person we can see how they have oftentimes furthered or hindered his life work and disturbed his personal balance. Shyness and the inferiority attitude may keep a man tied all his life to an accustomed but unremunerative job. They have oftentimes prevented his marriage or brought about a poorly adjusted marriage or kept him out of a wider 218 PSYCHOLOGY 218 PSYCHOLOGY social circle. On the other hand, in other cases too much aggres- siveness has just as often made impossible a man's chances of making good business and social connections.
Results of the Physiological Study of Emotions. A. Duct Glands and Smooth Muscles. — 'On page 31 and again in the discussion of the duct glands of the mouth and stomach (page 178), we brought out the fact that when the human or animal sub- ject is under the influence of the stimulus of hunger (rhythmical contractions of stomach muscles) conditioned secretion reflexes occur when food (food positively reacted to) is allowed to stimu- late the animal visually or olfactorily.
Under the influence of emotional stimuli these part activities are often blocked. This aspect of the phenomena of secretion and movement of the smooth muscles of the stomach is undoubtedly a part of the physiological study of emotion. A number, of ob- servers have shown that emotionally exciting situations do check the functioning of the glands. If a child with a gastric fistula is shown food and is then badgered by first handing it to him and then taking it away and then causing it to disappear from vision, crying and other definite signs of an emotional state appear. The secretions are checked. Similar conditions obtain in the case of dogs: if they are put in strange surroundings or if they are fastened in a holder, or finally if they are shown their natural enemy, the cat, the flow of secretion is checked. If the emotional state is long continued, in both man and animals even the uncon- ditioned reflexes may fail for some time, that is, the actual contact of the substance may fail to arouse the flow of the gastric juices.
A similar phenomenon appears in connection with the peri- staltic movements of the stomach, and indeed of the movements in the muscular layer of the whole alimentary canal. Restraining the animal and covering its mouth and nose with the finger, check the stomach contractions very quickly. But we have just seen that stimuli of this kind produce the emotion of rage. The same phenomena appear in the case of man. People under the influ- ence of fear and rage frequently do not digest their food (due to the checking of secretion) and the food remains in the stomach HEREDITARY MODES OF RESPONSE: EMOTIONS 219 (due to lack of movements necessary to pass the contents of the canal along).
Excitation of the pain receptors has the same effect as emo- tional disturbance (probably is a stimulus to rage) both upon secretion and upon the stomach contractions. It is probable that any of the highly exciting emotions act in the same way as those discussed above. Sex emotions aroused by salacious photographs and pictures have a definite inhibitory effect upon the rate and amount of secretion of the parotid gland and upon certain re- fiexes (swallowing, for example).
B. Effect of Exciting Stimuli upon the Ductless Glands. — Apparently one of the most important effects that emotional vStimuli exert is the release of arlrpnin Thp arlrpniri in t.nrn lih- from t.hp stnrpr) supply in flip IIVPI*, nffpn i greater than thp body pan ™nsnmp Glycosuria results, that is, the excess sugar passes over into the urine. This phenomenon often occurs in battle and in extreme emotional situations of any kind (depressing or exciting). Cannon states that young male cats when fastened in a holder become quite frantic, with eyes wide open and pupils dilated; the pulse is accelerated and the hairs of the tail become more or less erect; they snarl and growl as they try to free themselves. Whenever this excited condition occurs there is glycosuria (in from forty minutes to an hour and a half). When a small dog is allowed to bark at the cats, caus- ing them to become excited, the glycosuria manifests itself. Sim- ilar results occur in the case of the human being. After hard examinations or exciting athletic contests, students show tem- porary glycosuria.
When glycosuria occurs, it is an indication of an increased supply of sugar in the blood, since so long as the kidneys are uninjured the sugar cannot pass out through the urine until an excessive supply of sugar is at hand. Testing for sugar in the urine is really a very coarse method of detecting the emotional effect of a stimulus. Recently very sensitive methods have been discovered for detecting the presence of increase of sugar in the blood. A large amount of material has collected in our laboratory as the result of blood sugar tests. It is unquestionably a very 220 PSYCHOLOGY 220 PSYCHOLOGY delicate indicator and revealer of emotional changes. It has been used in connection with the association word reaction method. This joint method may be utilized as follows: One individual does a certain act while a second subject remains quietly in another room. The two return to the experimental room and the experi- menter must decide from the word responses (hesitations, etc.) which one of the individuals performed the act in question. A small amount (few drops) of blood is obtained from both indi- viduals both before the test is made and after, and the percent- age of blood sugar is determined in all four specimens. The individual having committed the ''crime" shows as a result the greater increase in blood sugar. The blood sugar reaction can thus be used as a supplementary method of detecting ' ' guilt. ' ' The method i» pmh^ly ^elipflfp pnongh to a given individual is emotionally aroused by the mere presence of another individual. These results were obtained by Dr. N. D. C. Lewis in - our laboratory. They have not yet been pub- lished. It has been shown conclusively in animals that if the adre- nal glands are removed emotional stimuli will not cause this increase in sugar either in the blood or in the urine. The con- clusion is well sustained, then, that emotional stimuli through a reflex mechanism set free adrenin which in turn ants npon-fhe supply of sugar in the liver and converts it' into a form which can be used by the muscles after it. yets into the blood stream.
In addition to its sugar conversion effect upon the liver, adrenin acts in conjunction with the sympathetic nerves and produces vaso-constriction and hence an increased blood-pressure. It has been shown that when a given muscle is active, its blood- vessels dilate, thus tending to decrease arterial pressure. If many muscles are called into action at any given moment, these dilated vessels may so reduce arterial pressure that the muscles fail to get their proper food. Waste products also accumulate m the muscles. Adrenin because of its reinforcing effect upon J vaso-constrictor nerves produces heightened arterial pres- sure, which increases the food supply to the muscle and removes waste products. The blood is driven out of the vegetative organs the interior into the skeletal muscles, which have to meet the HEREDITARY MODES OF RESPONSE: EMOTIONS 221 extra demand when the animal is fighting and struggling to free itself.
C. Specific Effect of Adrenin. — There seems to be general agreement that the free adrenin in the blood acts directly upon the muscle in such a way as to neutralize fatigue products. "What rest will do only after an hour or more, adrenin will do in five minutes or less" (Cannon). This result is in addition to adrenin 's function in producing a greater food supply to the muscle and increasing the amount of blood circulating through the muscle. After a muscle has been fatigued, that is, has lost its irritability, the injection of adrenin in the blood (or stimulation of the splanchnic nerve) will rapidly restore the muscle to its resting condition. Cannon maintains that the presence of adrenin also hastens clotting of the blood, which in wounded animals might be advantageous. His results in this re- spect have not been wholly confirmed.
Apparent Conflict Between Formulations. — There seems to be a conflict between our early statements about emotion and those gathered from the physiological studies just reported. We / first^expressed the view that if the emotional stimulus w^s strong1 enough or continued for a. an ffim'ent length of time paralysis or the death feint would occun. The state attained here is surely not adaptive. ^The result of the physiological study seemed to_show that the organism under the influence of takes on a bettered state, onp in whioh g-rpafpr nmsmilar and less fatisrue is possible. The conflict can be harmonized. / The "improved" physiological state is apparently Hue to the. action of the autacoid substances We saw on page 182 that such substances act like drugs. If a small amount of a certain drug, say strychnine, is administered, increased appetite and increased muscular activity ensue. A bettered general physiological con- dition may result. On the other hand, if too large an amount is given, the muscles may become rigid and the subject may die. Possibly a similar thing happens in the case of the autacoids. If the substances are set free in too large amounts, there is one type of action, namely, the paralyzing effect. If set free in physio- logically serviceable amounts, their action may produce a com- 222 PSYCHOLOGY bined series of reflexes, the total result of which may be a bettered physiological state.
The physiologists have unquestionably overemphasized the "adaptive" character in all of the major emotions. From Can- non's work it is easy to see how under the emotions of rage, fear and pain stimulation the possibility of increased muscular effort might aid the organism in fighting or in flight. On the other hand, it is difficult to see how this physiological state plays any service- able role in adjustment unless the organism is in a situation where the increased muscular possibilities are to be used; but such situations are rare. A man in the army receives a letter telling him that his wife has gone off with another person. The news is undoubtedly a strong stimulus; depression takes place and examination shows the presence of sugar in the urine, and natu- rally an increased supply in the blood, but his routine of camp activity happens to be such that no great muscular demand is made of him. We may grant Cannon 's general position and yet maintain that it is not a very serviceable concept for the ordi- nary routine of daily life. We are no longer living in a frontier country, and outside of an occasional war, there is not much opportunity to bare our teeth and struggle for existence in the good old primitive way of our ancestors. Cannon 's appeal to the biological serviceableness of the emotional reaction needs modification.
There would seem to be no question but that the immediate effect of the exciting stimuli upon organized activity, as was brought out on page 196, is always disruptive. If an individual is preparing a lecture or writing a book or rendering a musical selection, any strong ^motional stimulus at least temporarily dis- rupts and blocks organized activity. The same thing would occur in the case of a group of officers if while preparing plans to make an attack on the enemy the following day, a shell were to burst and tear down a portion of the building in which they were working. It would thus seem necessary to state that the imme- diate effect of an exciting stimulus is " unadaptive, " disassoeia- tive and disruptive. The immediate effect may endure for an extremely short time, or for a longer time. We have found that HEREDITARY MODES OF RESPONSE: EMOTIONS 223