be displayed in all activities, even though not conventionally designated arts.
[Sidenote: The art of the teacher culminates in nurturing this attitude] That teaching is an art and the true teacher an artist is a familiar saying. Now the teacher's own claim to rank as an artist is measured by his ability to foster the attitude of the artist in those who study with him, whether they be youth or little children. Some succeed in arousing enthusiasm, in communicating large ideas, in evoking energy. So far, well; but the final test is whether the stimulus thus given to wider aims succeeds in transforming itself into power, that is to say, into the attention to detail that ensures mastery over means of execution. If not, the zeal flags, the interest dies out, the ideal becomes a clouded memory. Other teachers succeed in training facility, skill, mastery of the technique of subjects. Again it is well--so far. But unless enlargement of mental vision, power of increased discrimination of final values, a sense for ideas--for principles--accompanies this training, forms of skill ready to be put indifferently to any end may be the result. Such modes of technical skill may display themselves, according to circumstances, as cleverness in serving self-interest, as docility in carrying out the purposes of others, or as unimaginative plodding in ruts. To nurture inspiring aim and executive means into harmony with each other is at once the difficulty and the reward of the teacher.
[Sidenote: "Familiarity breeds contempt,"] Teachers who have heard that they should avoid matters foreign to pupils' experience, are frequently surprised to find pupils wake up when something beyond their ken is introduced, while they remain apathetic in considering the familiar. In geography, the child upon the plains seems perversely irresponsive to the intellectual charms of his local environment, and fascinated by whatever concerns mountains or the sea.
Teachers who have struggled with little avail to extract from pupils essays describing the details of things with which they are well acquainted, sometimes find them eager to write on lofty or imaginary themes. A woman of education, who has recorded her experience as a factory worker, tried retelling _Little Women_ to some factory girls during their working hours. They cared little for it, saying, "Those girls had no more interesting experience than we have," and demanded stories of millionaires and society leaders. A man interested in the mental condition of those engaged in routine labor asked a Scotch girl in a cotton factory what she thought about all day. She replied that as soon as her mind was free from starting the machinery, she married a duke, and their fortunes occupied her for the remainder of the day.
[Sidenote: since only the novel demands attention,] Naturally, these incidents are not told in order to encourage methods of teaching that appeal to the sensational, the extraordinary, or the incomprehensible. They are told, however, to enforce the point that the familiar and the near do not excite or repay thought on their own account, but only as they are adjusted to mastering the strange and remote. It is a commonplace of psychology that we do not attend to the old, nor consciously mind that to which we are thoroughly accustomed.
For this, there is good reason: to devote attention to the old, when new circumstances are constantly arising to which we should adjust ourselves, would be wasteful and dangerous. Thought must be reserved for the new, the precarious, the problematic. Hence the mental constraint, the sense of being lost, that comes to pupils when they are invited to turn their thoughts upon that with which they are already familiar. The old, the near, the accustomed, is not that _to_ which but that _with_ which we attend; it does not furnish the material of a problem, but of its solution.
[Sidenote: which, in turn, can be given only through the old] The last sentence has brought us to the balancing of new and old, of the far and that close by, involved in reflection. The more remote supplies the stimulus and the motive; the nearer at hand furnishes the point of approach and the available resources. This principle may also be stated in this form: the best thinking occurs when the easy and the difficult are duly proportioned to each other. The easy and the familiar are equivalents, as are the strange and the difficult. Too much that is easy gives no ground for inquiry; too much of the hard renders inquiry hopeless.
[Sidenote: The given and the suggested] The necessity of the interaction of the near and the far follows directly from the nature of thinking. Where there is thought, something present suggests and indicates something absent. Accordingly unless the familiar is presented under conditions that are in some respect unusual, it gives no jog to thinking, it makes no demand upon what is not present in order to be understood. And if the subject presented is totally strange, there is no basis upon which it may suggest anything serviceable for its comprehension. When a person first has to do with fractions, for example, they will be wholly baffling so far as they do not signify to him some relation that he has already mastered in dealing with whole numbers. When fractions have become thoroughly familiar, his perception of them acts simply as a signal to do certain things; they are a "substitute sign," to which he can react without thinking.
(_Ante_, p. 178.) If, nevertheless, the situation as a whole presents something novel and hence uncertain, the entire response is not mechanical, because this mechanical operation is put to use in solving a problem. There is no end to this spiral process: foreign subject-matter transformed through thinking into a familiar possession becomes a resource for judging and assimilating additional foreign subject-matter.
[Sidenote: Observation supplies the near, imagination the remote] The need for both imagination and observation in every mental enterprise illustrates another aspect of the same principle. Teachers who have tried object-lessons of the conventional type have usually found that when the lessons were new, pupils were attracted to them as a diversion, but as soon as they became matters of course they were as dull and wearisome as was ever the most mechanical study of mere symbols.
Imagination could not play about the objects so as to enrich them. The feeling that instruction in "facts, facts" produces a narrow Gradgrind is justified not because facts in themselves are limiting, but because facts are dealt out as such hard and fast ready-made articles as to leave no room to imagination. Let the facts be presented so as to stimulate imagination, and culture ensues naturally enough. The converse is equally true. The imaginative is not necessarily the imaginary; that is, the unreal. The proper function of imagination is vision of realities that cannot be exhibited under existing conditions of sense-perception. Clear insight into the remote, the absent, the obscure is its aim. History, literature, and geography, the principles of science, nay, even geometry and arithmetic, are full of matters that must be imaginatively realized if they are realized at all. Imagination supplements and deepens observation; only when it turns into the fanciful does it become a substitute for observation and lose logical force.
[Sidenote: Experience through communication of others' experience] A final exemplification of the required balance between near and far is found in the relation that obtains between the narrower field of experience realized in an individual's own contact with persons and things, and the wider experience of the race that may become his through communication. Instruction always runs the risk of swamping the pupil's own vital, though narrow, experience under masses of communicated material. The instructor ceases and the teacher begins at the point where communicated matter stimulates into fuller and more significant life that which has entered by the strait and narrow gate of sense-perception and motor activity. Genuine communication involves contagion; its name should not be taken in vain by terming communication that which produces no community of thought and purpose between the child and the race of which he is the heir.
INDEX Abstract, 135-144 Abstraction, 155 f.
Active attitude and the concept, 128 in education, 112 Apperception, 199; apperceptive masses, 203 _see_ Understanding.
Artist, attitude of, 219 f.
Articulation, 3 Authority, 4, 25 Bacon, 22, 25, 33 Bain, 155 Balance, 38 _see_ Action, Occupations Belief, 1, 3-7; reached indirectly, 18 Central factor in thinking, 7 Children, 42 f.
Concentration, 40 _see_ Meaning.
technique of, 87 f.
Consequence, consequential, 2; consequences, 5 Consistency, 40 Control, 18-28; of deduction, 93-100; of induction, 84-93; _see_ Regulation.
Corroborate, corroboration, 9, 77 Curiosity, 31 ff., 105 Darwin, 38, 90, 127 Decision, 107 control of, 93-100 Definition, 130 f.; Development, of ideas, 83; _see_ Elaboration, Ratiocination, Reasoning.
Drill, 52, 63 Drudgery, 218 Education, intellectual, 57, 62; aim of, 143 f., 156 _see_ Development, Ratiocination, Reasoning.
_see_ Grounds.
Extension, 130 f.
Fact _vs_ idea, 109; facts, 3, 5 Faculty psychology, 45 Fooling, 217 Formalism; _see_ Discipline.
Formal steps of instruction, 202, 206 Freedom, 64 f.; intellectual, 66 Function, 123; function of signifying, 7, 15 _see_ Principles, Universal.
_see_ Evidence.
Guiding factor in reflection, 11 Habits; _see_ Action.
Herbart, 202 Herbartian method, 202-6 Hobhouse, 31 _see_ Meaning.
Internal congruity, 3 Judgment, 5; factors of, 101; and inference, 101 ff.; intuitive, 104 f.; principles of, 106 f.; tentative, 101 spiral movement of, 120, 223 Language, 170-87; and education, 176-87; and meaning, 171; technical, 184 f.; as a tool of thought, 170 ff., 179 Leap, in inference, 26, 75 Leisure, 209 f.
Memory, 107 Method, 46-50, 58; analytic and synthetic, 114; formal, 60 Mill, 18 n.
Mood, 5 Motivation, 42 Negative cases, 90 Notion. _See_ Concept.
Object lessons, 140, 192 in schools, 193-7; scientific, 196 Openmindedness, 219 _see_ Consecutive.
of subject matter, 62 Originality, 198 _cf._ General, Universal.
Recitation, 201-13; factors in, 206-13 central function of, 116; double movement of, 79-84; five steps in, 72-8, 203 f.
Regulation, 18-28; _see_ Control.
Relation, relationship, 82, 97; _see_ Connection.
Scientific thinking, 145-6 Sense training, 190-97 Sequence, 2; _cf._ Consequence.
Sidgwick, 127 Signify, 7, 15 Signs, 16, 171-6 Spiral movement, _see_ Knowledge.
Studies, types of, 50 Subject matter, 58 f.; logical, 61 f.; practical, 49; theoretical, 49; and the teacher, 204 f.
Succession, 3 dimensions of, 34-7 Supposition, 4, 9 Suspense of judgment, 13, 74, 82 Symbols, _see_ Signs.
Synthesis, 114 f.
of deduction, 96, 99 Theory, 138 Theoretical, 137 _see_ Reasoning, Reflection.
Thought, 8 f.; educative value of, 2; reflective, 2; train of, 3; types of, 1 Truth, truths, 3 Uncertainty, _see_ Doubt, Perplexity.
Unconscious, 214 ff.
Uncritical thinking, 12 Understanding, 116-20; direct and indirect, 118-20, 136 Universal, 9 Vailati, 81 n.