to himself (immaterial whether out of his own pocket or by means of credit from others) money in anticipation of surplus-value to be realized by him. If the businesss has been running regularly for a period longer than the cur- rent year, payments and receipts are distributed over differ- ent terms of the year. But one thing continues uninter- ruptedly, namely the consumption of the capitalist, which anticipates a definite portion of the customary or estimated revenue and is calculated on a certain proportion of it. With every portion of commodities sold, a portion of the annually produced surplus-value is also realized. But if only as much of the produced commodities were sold dur- ing the entire year as is required to reproduce the values contained in the constant and variable capitals, or if prices were to fall to such an extent that only the value of the capital contained in it should be realized by the sale of the entire annual product in commodities, then the anticipa- tory character of the expenditure of money in expectation of future surplus-value would be clearly revealed. If our capitalist fails, then his creditors and the court investigate whether his anticipated private expenditures were reason- ably proportionate to the volume of his business and to the receipts of surplus-value usually or normally correspond- ing to it.
So far as the entire capitalist class are concerned, the statement that they must themselves throw into circulation the money required for the realization of their surplus- value (eventually for the circulation of their constant and variable capital) is not only no paradox, but is the neces- sary premise of the entire mechanism. For there are only two classes in this case, the working class disposing of their labor-power, and the capitalist class owning the social means of production and the money. It would rather be a paradox if the working class were to advance in the first instance out of its own pockets the money required for the realization of the surplus-value contained in the com- modities. But the individual capitalist makes this ad- vance only by acting as a buyer, expending money in the purchase of articles of consumption, or advancing money Simple Reproduction. 489 in the purchase of elements of hi.s productive capital. He never parts with his money unless he gets an equivalent for it. He advances money to the circulation only in the same way that he advances commodities to it. He acts in both instances as the point of departure of their circulation. The actual transaction is obscured by two circumstances: (1) The fact that merchant's capital (the first form of which is always money, since the merchant as such does not create any "product" or "commodity") and money- capital are manipulated by a special class of capitalists in the process of circulation of industrial capital.
(2) The division of surplus-value — which must always be first in the hands of the industrial capitalist — into various categories, represented, aside from industrial capi- talists, by the land owner (for ground rent), the u?urer (for interest), etc., furthermore by the government and its officials, by people living on their income, etc. This gentry appear as buyers as compared to the industrial capitalist, and to that extent as monetizers of his commodities; they likewise throw "money" into circulation on their part and the industrial gets it from them. But in that case, it is always forgotten from what source they derived it origi- nally, and continue deriving it ever anew.
VI. THE CONSTANT CAPITAL OF DEPARTMENT I.43 It remains for us to analyze the constant capital of de- partment I, amounting to 4000 c. This value is equal to that of the means of production consumed in the creation of the commodity-product of I and incorporated in it. This re-appearing value, which was not produced in the process of production of I, but entered into it during the preceding year in the form of constant capital, representing the defi- nite value of his means of production, exists now in the entire quantity of commodities not absorbed by department II. And the value of this quantity of commodities thus 43 Manuscript II resumed here.
490 Capital.
left in the hands of the capitalists of I equals two-thirds of the value of their entire annual commodity-product. In the case of the individual capitalist producing some par- ticular means of production, we were enabled to say: He sells his commodity-product; he converts it into money. By converting it into money, he has also reconverted into money the constant portion of the value of his product. With this portion of value, thus converted into money, he then buys his means of production once more from other sellers of com- modities, or transforms the constant portion of the value of his product into its natural form, in which it can resume its function of productive constant capital. But now this supposition becomes impossible. The capitalist class of I comprises all the capitalists producing means of production. Besides, the commodity-product of 4000, which is left on their hands, is a portion of the social product which can- not be exchanged for any other portion, because no other portion of the annual product remains. With the exception of these 4000, all the remainder of the product has been dis- posed of. One portion has been absorbed by the social fund for consumption, and another portion has to reproduce the constant capital of department II, which has already bargained for everything which it can exchange with L The difficulty is solved very easily, when we remember that the entire product of I in its natural form consists of means of production, that is to say, of material elements of the constant capital itself. We meet here the same phe- nomenon which we witnessed under II, only under a differ- ent aspect. In the case of II, the entire product consisted of articles of consumption. Hence one portion of it, measured by the wages plus surplus-value contained in this product, could be consumed by its own producers. Here, in the case of I, the entire product consists of means of production, such as buildings, machinery, tanks, raw and auxiliary materials, etc. One portion of them, namely that reproducing the constant capital employed in this sphere, can, therefore, be immediately set to work in its natural form to serve once more as an element of productive capital. So far as it goes into circulation, it circulates within department I. While Simple Reproduction. 491 a portion of the commodity-product of II is individually consumed in its natural form by its own producers, a portion of the commodity-product of I is productively consumed in its natural form by its capitalist producers.
In these 4000c of the commodity-product of I, the con- stant capital-value consumed in this category re-appears in its natural form in which it can immediately resume its services as a productive constant capital. In department II, that portion of the commodity-product of 3000 whose value is equal to the wages plus the surplus-value of 1000, passes directly into the individual consumption of the capitalists and laborers of II, while, on the other hand, the constant value of this commodity-product, equal to 2000-, cannot re- enter into the productive consumption of the capitalists of II, but must be reproduced by exchange with I.
But in department I, that portion of its commodity-pro- duct of 6000, whose value is equal to the wages plus the surplus-value, or 2000, does not pass into the individual consumption of its producers, and could not on account of its natural form. It must first be exchanged with depart- ment II. On the other hand, the constant portion of the value of this product, or 4000, exists in a natural form, in which it can immediately resume its services as the constant capital of the capitalist class of I, taking this class as an aggregate. In other words, the entire product of department I consists of use-values which, on account of their natural form, can serve only as elements of constant capital, in a capitalist system of production. One third of this product of 6000, then, reproduces the constant capital of depart- ment II, or 2000, and the other two thirds the constant capital of department I.
The constant capital of I consists of a number of dif- ferent groups of capital invested in the various lines of production of means of production, so much in iron works, so much in coal mines, etc. Every one of these groups of capital, or every one of these social capital groups, is in its turn composed of a larger or smaller number of inde- pendently functioning individual capitals. In the first place, the capital of society, for instance 7500 (millions, or any 492 Capital.
other denomination) is composed of various groups of cap- ital; the social capital of 7500 is divided into separate parts, every one of which is invested in a special line of production, each portion invested in some particular line of production consists, so far as its natural composition is concerned, partly of means of production required in that special sphere of pro- duction, partly of the labor-power employed in that business and adapted to its requirements. This labor-power is modi- fied by division of labor, according to the specific labor to be performed in each individual sphere of production. Each portion of social capital invested in any particular line ot production in its turn consists of the sum of all individual capitals invested in it. This, of course, applies equally to departments I and II.
As for the value of the constant capital re-appearing in the form of the commodity-product of I, it re-enters in part as means of production into the particular sphere whose product it is (or even into the individual business), for instance, corn into the production of corn, coal into the pro- duction of coal, iron in the form of machines into the pro- duction of iron, etc.
However, the partial products constituting the value of the constant capital of I, so far as they do not return directly to their particular or individual sphere of production, merely change their place. They pass in their natural form to some other sphere of production of department I, while the product of other spheres of production of de- partment I replaces them in their natural state. It is merely a change of place of the products. All of them be- come once more the elements in the reproduction of constant capital of I, only in another group of I instead of the same one. To the extent that an exchange takes place between the individual capitalists of I, it is an exchange of one natural form of constant capital for another, one kind of means of production for another. It is an exchange of the different individual constant parts of capital of I among themselves. Unless the products serve directly as means of production in their own line, they are transferred to another line and thus naturally replace one another. In Simple Reproduction. 493 other words (similarly to what we saw in the case of the surplus value II), every capitalist of I draws on this con- stant capital of 4000, of which he is part owner, to the extent of his share, in means of production required by him. If production were socialized, instead of capitalistic, it is evident that these products of department I would just as regularly be redistributed as means of production to the various lines of production of this department, for purposes of reproduction, one portion remaining directly in that sphere of production which created it, another passing over to other lines of production of the same department, thereby entertaining a constant mutual exchange between the various lines of production of this department.
VII. VARIABLE CAPITAL AND SURPLUS- VALUE IN BOTH DE- PARTMENTS.
The total value of the articles of consumption annually produced is equal to the value of the variable capital of II produced during the year plus the newly created surplus- value of II (in other words, equal to the value newly pro- duced by II during the year) plus the value of the variable capital of I reproduced during the year and the newly produced surplus-value of I (in other words, plus the value created by I during the year).
On the assumption of simple reproduction, then, the total value of the annually produced articles of consumption is equal to the annual product in values, in other words, equal to the total value produced during that year by social labor. And it must be so, for the reason that this entire value is consumed, on the basis of simple reproduction.
The total social working day is divided into two parts: (1) Necessary labor, which creates in the course of the year a value of 1500 v; (2), surplus labor, which creates an ad- ditional value, or surplus-value, of 1500 s. The sum of these values, 3000, is equal to the value of the annually produced articles of consumption of 3000. The total value of articles of consumption produced during the year is therefore equal to the total value produced by the social working day dur- 494 Capital.
ing the year, equal to the value of the variable social capital plus the social surplus-value, equal to the total new product of the year.
But we know that the total value of the commodities of II, the articles of consumption, is not produced in this department of social production, although these two classes of value are identical. They are identical, because the value of the constant capital re-appearing in department II is equal to the value newly produced by I (value of vari- able capital plus surplus value); so that I (v+s) can buy that portion of the product of II which represents the value of the constant capital of the producers in department II. This shows why the value of the product of the capitalists of II, from the point of view of society, may be resolved into v + s, although from their standpoint it is divided into c + v + s. It is because lie is equal to I (v + s), and because these two elements of the social product are mutually exchanged in their natural forms, so that after this exchange lie exists once more in means of production, and I (v + s) in articles of consumption.
And it is this circumstance which induced Adam Smith to claim that the value of the annual product resolves itself into v + s. But this is not true, in the first place, except for that part of the annual product which consists of ar- ticles of consumption; and in the second place, it does not apply in the sense that this total value is entirely pro- duced by department II, so that its value in products would be equal to the variable capital advanced by II plus the surplus-value produced by II. It is true only in the sense that II(c + v + s) is equal to II (v + s)+I(v +s), or be- cause He is equal to I (v + s).
It follows, furthermore: Although the social working day (that is to say, the labor expended by the entire working class during the whole year), like every individual working day, is divided only in two parts, namely into necessary labor and surplus-labor, and although the value produced by this working day like- wise resolves itself into but two parts, namely into the value of variable capital, or that portion with which the laborer Simple Reproduction. 495 buys his own means of reproduction, and the surplus-value which the capitalist may spend for his own individual con- sumption, nevertheless, from the point of view of society, one portion of the social working day is exclusively devoted to the production of new constant capital, namely of pro- ducts exclusively intended for service as means of produc- tion in the labor-process and thus as constant capital in the accompanying process of self-expansion. According to our assumption, the total social working day is represented by a money-value of 3000, only one third of which, or 1000, is produced in department II, which manufactures articles of consumption, that is to say, commodities in which the entire value of the variable capital and the entire surplus- value of society is finally realized. According to this as- sumption, two thirds of the social working day are em- ployed in the production of new constant capital. Although, from the standpoint of the individual capitalists and laborers of department I, these two thirds of the social working day serve merely for the production of variable capital plus surplus-value, the same as the last third of the social working day in department II, neverthe- less, from the point of view of society, and of the use-value of the product, these two thirds of the social working day serve only for the reproduction of constant capital in pro- cess of productive consumption or already so consumed. From the individual point of view, these two thirds of the working day, while producing a total value equal only to the value of the variable capital plus surplus-value, so far as its producer is concerned, nevertheless do not produce any use-values of the kind on which wages or surplus-value could be expended; for their products are means of pro- duction.
It must be noted, in the first place, that no portion of the social working day, whether in I or in II, serves for the production of the value of the constant capital employed and serving in these two great spheres of production. They produce only additional value, namely 2000 I(v + s)-f- constant capital, represented by 4000 Ic + 2000 He. The 1000 II (v + s), an addition to the existing value of the 496 Capital.
new value produced in the form of means of production is not yet constant capital. It merely is intended to be used as such in the future.
The entire product of II, the articles of consumption, viewed concretely as a use-value, in its natural form, is a creation of the one third of the social working day con- tributed by II. It is the product of labor in its concrete form, such as the labor of weaving, baking, etc., performed in this department as the subjective element of the labor process. But the constant portion of the value of this pro- duct of II re-appears only in a new use-value, in a new natural form, namely that of articles of consumption, while it existed previously in the form of means of production. Its value has been transferred by the labor-process from its old natural form to its new natural form. But this value of these two thirds of the product, or 2000, has not been produced in this year's productive process of II- Just as, from the point of view of the labor-process, the product of II is the result of the function of new living labor and means of production previously given to it, which are the material objects in which it incorporates itself, so, from the point of view of the process of reproduction, the value of the product of II, or 3000, is composed of the new value (500 v + 500 s = 1000) produced by the newly added one third of the social working day and of a constant value, in which two thirds of a previous social working day are embodied, which passed away before the present process of production of II. This portion of the value of the pro- duct of II is materialized in a portion of the product itself. It exists in a quantity of articles of consumption valued at 2000, or two thirds of a social working day- This is the new use-form in which it re-appears. The exchange of a portion of the articles of consumption of 2000 lie for means of production of I equal to I (1000 v + 1000 s) represents, therefore, indeed an exchange of two thirds of a social working day which do not constitute any portion of this year's labor, but passed away previously to this year, for two thirds of the social working day newly addGd this year.
Two thirds of this year's social working day could not Simple Reproduction. 497 serve in the production of constant capital and yet at the same time constitute variable capital plus surplus-value for their own producers, unless they were compelled to ex- change with a portion of the value of the annually con- sumed articles of consumption, in which two thirds of a working day spent and realized, not this year, but pre- viously, are incorporated. It is an exchange of two thirds of this year's working day with two thirds of a preceding working day, an exchange of this year's labor with that of a previous year. This, then explains the riddle, how it is that the product in values of an entire social working day may resolve itself into variable capital plus surplus- value, although two thirds of this working day were not expended in the production of articles, in which variable capital or surplus-value can be realized, but rather in the production of means of production for the replacement of capital consumed during this year. The explanation is simply that two thirds of the value of the product of II, in which the capitalists and laborers of I realize the value of the variable capital and surplus-value produced by them (and which constitute two thirds of the value of the entire annual product), are, so far as their value is concerned, the product of two thirds of a social working day passed previously to this year.
The sum of the social product of I and II, comprising means of production and articles of consumption, so far as its concrete use-value in its natural form is concerned, is indeed the result of this year's labor, but only to the extent that this labor is regarded as useful and concrete, not as an expenditure of labor-power and creator of values. And even so, it is concrete labor only in the sense that the means of production have transformed themselves into this year's new product by dint of the living labor operating on them. On the other hand, it is also true that this year's labor could not have transformed itself into products with- out the help of means of production, of instruments of pro- duction and materials, which existed independently of it.
498 Capital VIII. THE CONSTANT CAPITAL IN BOTH DEPARTMENTS.
The analysis of the total value of the product of 9000, and of the categories into which it is divided, does not pre- sent any greater difficulties than that of the value produced by some individual capital. It is rather identical with it.
In the present instance, the entire social product of this year contains three social working days, each of one year. The value represented by «ach one of these working days is 3000, so that the value of the total nroduct is 3 X 3000, Furthermore, the following portions of this working time belong to a period previous to that of the process of pro- duction which we now analyze: In department I, four thirds of a working day (with a product valued at 4000), and in department II, two thirds of a working day (with a product valued at 2000), making a total of two social working days with a product valued at 6000. For this reason, 4000 Ic + 2000 He = 6000 c figure as the value of the means of production, or value of the constant capital, re-appearing in the total product of society- Furthermore, one third of the social working day of one year newly added by department I is necessary labor, or labor reproducing the value of the variable capital of 1000 Iv and paying the price of the labor employed by I. In the same way, one sixth of the social working day of II is necessary labor valued at 500. Hence we have 1000 I v + 500 II v = 1500 v, expressing the value of one half of the social working day, the value of the first half of the work- ing day added this year and consisting of necessary labor.
Finally, in department I, one third of the social working day of this year, with a product valued at 1000, is surplus- labor, and one sixth of one working day in department II, with a product valued at 500, is likewise surplus-labor. Together they constitute the other half of the newly added social working day, with a total value of surplus-labor amounting to 1000 I s + 500 II s = 1500 s.
Simple Reproduction. 499 This, then, is the situation: Constant portion of capital in terms of the value of the social product (c): Two working days expended previously to the present process of production, worth 6000 in value.
Necessary labor (v) expended during the present year: One half of one working day expended during the present year, worth 1500 in value.
Surplus-labor (s) expended during the present year: One- half of one working day expended during the present year, worth 1500 in value.
Product in values of annual labor (v + s), 3000.
The difficulty, then, does not consist in the analysis of the social product in values. It arises in the comparison of the component parts of the value of the social product with its material elements.
The constant, merely re-appearing, portion of value is equal to the value of that part of this product which con- sists of means of production, and it is incorporated in that part.
The product in values of the current year, equal to v + s, is equal to the value of that part of this product, which consists of articles of consumption, and is incorporated in it.