Then the dismissed priest shall, through the medium of spies under the guise of class-mates (satri), instigate each minister one after another, saying on oath "this king is unrighteous; well let us set up in his place another king who is righteous, or who is born of the same family as of this king, or who is kept imprisoned, or a neighbouring king of his family and of self-sufficiency (ekapragraha), or a wild chief (atavika), or an upstart (aupapddika); this attempt is to the liking of all of us; what dost thou think?"
If any one or all of the ministers refuse to acquiesce in such a measure, he or they shall be considered pure. This is what is called religious allurement.
A commander of the army, dismissed from service for receiving condemnable things (asatpragraha) may, through the agency of spies under the guise of class-mates {satri), incite each minister to murder the king in view of acquiring immense wealth, each minister being asked "this attempt is to the liking of all of us; what dost thou think?"
22 Kautilya's Arthashastra If they refuse to agree, they are to be considered pure. This is what is termed monetary allurement.
A woman-spy under the guise of an ascetic and highly esteemed in the harem of the king may allure each prime minister (mahdmdtra) one after another, saying "the queen is enamoured of thee and has made arrangements for thy entrance into her chamber; besides this, there is also the certainty of large acquisitions of wealth."
If they discard the proposal, they are pure. This is what is styled love-allurement.
With the intention of sailing on a commercial vessel (prahavananimittam), a minister may induce all other ministers to follow him. Apprehensive of danger, the king may arrest them all. A spy under the guise of a fraudulent disciple, pretending to have suffered imprisonment may incite each of the ministers thus deprived of wealth and rank, saying, "the king has betaken himself to an unwise course; well, having murdered him, let us put another in his stead. We all like this; what dost thou think?"
If they refuse to agree, they are pure. This is what is termed allurement under fear.
Of these tried ministers, those whose character has been tested under religious allurements shall be employed in civil and criminal courts (dharmasthaniyakantaka sodhaneshu); those whose purity has been tested under monetary allurements shall be employed in the work of a revenue collector and chamberlain; those who have been tried under love-allurements shall be appointed to superintend the pleasure-grounds (vihdra) both external and internal; those who have been tested by allurements under fear shall be appointed to immediate service; and those 23 Kautilya's Arthashastra whose character has been tested under all kinds of allurements shall be employed as prime ministers (mantrinah), while those who are proved impure under one or all of these allurements shall be appointed in mines, timber and elephant forests, and manufactories.
Teachers have decided that in accordance with ascertained purity, the king shall employ in corresponding works those ministers whose character has been tested under the three pursuits of life, religion, wealth and love, and under fear.
Never, in the view of Kautilya, shall the king make himself or his queen an object (laksham, butt) of testing the character of his councillors, nor shall he vitiate the pure like water with poison.
Sometimes the prescribed medicine may fail to reach the person of moral disease; the mind of the valiant, though naturally kept steadfast, may not, when once vitiated and repelled under the four kinds of allurements, return to and recover its original form.
Hence having set up an external object as the butt for all the four kinds of allurements, the king shall, through the agency of spies (satri), find out the pure or impure character of his ministers (amdtya).
[Thus ends Chapter X, "Ascertaining by Temptations Purity or Impurity in the Character of Ministers," in Book I, "Concerning Discipline" of the Arthas as tra of Kautilya.]
CHAPTER XI. THE INSTITUTION OF SPIES.
ASSISTED by the council of his ministers tried under 24 Kautilya's Arthashastra espionage, the king shall proceed to create spies: —Spies under the guise of a fraudulent disciple (kdpatikachhdtra), a recluse (uddsthita), a householder (grihapaitika), a merchant (vaidehaka), an ascetic practising austerities (tdpasa), a class-mate or a colleague (satri), a fire-brand (tikshna), a poisoner (rasada), and a mendicant woman (bhikshuki).
A skillful person capable of guessing the mind of others is a fraudulent disciple. Having encouraged such a spy with honour and money rewards, the minister shall tell him, "sworn to the king and myself, thou shalt inform us of whatever wickedness thou findest in others."
One who is initiated in asceticism and is possessed of foresight and pure character is a recluse. This spy, provided with much money and many disciples, shall carry on agriculture, cattle -rearing, and trade (ydrtakarma) on the lands allotted to him for the purpose. Out of the produce and profits thus acquired, he shall provide all ascetics with subsistence, clothing and lodging, and send on espionage such among those under his protection as are desirous to earn a livelihood (vrittikdma), ordering each of them to detect a particular kind of crime committed in connection with the king's wealth and to report of it when they come to receive their subsistence and wages. All the ascetics (under the recluse) shall severally send their followers on similar errands.
A cultivator, fallen from his profession, but possessed of foresight and pure character is termed a householder spy. This spy shall carry on the cultivation of lands allotted to him for the purpose, and maintain cultivators, etc.— as before.
A trader, fallen from his profession, but possessed of foresight and pure character, is a merchant spy. This spy shall carry on the manufacture of merchandise on lands allotted to him for the 25 Kautilya's Arthashastra purpose, etc.,— as before.
A man with shaved head (munda) or braided hair (jatila) and desirous to earn livelihood is a spy under the guise of an ascetic practising austerities. Such a spy surrounded by a host of disciples with shaved head or braided hair may take his abode in the suburbs of a city, and pretend as a person barely living on a handful of vegetables or meadow grass (yavasamushti) taken once in the interval of a month or two, but he may take in secret his favourite food- stuffs (gudhamishtamdhdram).
Merchant spies pretending to be his disciples may worship him as one possessed of preternatural powers. His other disciples may widely proclaim that "this ascetic is an accomplished expert of preternatural powers."
Regarding those persons who, desirous of knowing their future, throng to him, he may, through palmistry, foretell such future events as he can ascertain by the nods and signs of his disciples (angavidyayd sishyasanjndbhischa) concerning the works of highborn people of the country,— viz., small profits, destruction by fire, fear from robbers, the execution of the seditious, rewards for the good, forecast of foreign affairs (videsa pravrittivijndnam), saying, "this will happen to-day, that to-morrow, and that this king will do." Such assertions of the ascetic his disciples shall corroborate (by adducing facts and figures).
He shall also foretell not only the rewards which persons possessed of foresight, eloquence, and bravery are likely to receive at the hands of the king, but also probable changes in the appointments of ministers.
The king's minister shall direct his affairs in conformity to the 26 Kautilya's Arthashastra forecast made by the ascetic. He shall appease with offer of wealth and honour those who have had some well known cause to be disaffected, and impose punishments in secret on those who are for no reason disaffected or who are plotting against the king.
Honoured by the king with awards of money and titles, these five institutes of espionage (samsthdh) shall ascertain the purity of character of the king's servants.
[Thus ends Chapter XI, "The Institution of Spies" in Book I, "Concerning Discipline" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya.]
CHAPTER XII. INSTITUTION OF SPIES.
Creation of Wandering Spies.
THOSE orphans (asambandhinah) who are to be necessarily fed by the state and are put to study science, palmistry (angavidya), sorcery (mdydgata), the duties of the various orders of religious life, legerdemain (jambhakavidya), and the reading of omens and augury (antara-chakra), are classmate spies or spies learning by social intercourse (samsargavidyasatrinah).
Such brave desperados of the country who, reckless of their own life, confront elephants or tigers in fight mainly for the purpose of earning money are termed firebrands or fiery spies (tikshna).
Those who have no trace of filial affection left in them and who are very cruel and indolent are poisoners (rasada).
A poor widow of Brahman caste, very clever, and desirous to 27 Kautilya's Arthashastra earn her livelihood is a woman ascetic (parivrdjikd). Honoured in the king's harem, such a woman shall frequent the residences of the king's prime ministers (mahdmdtrakuldni).
The same rule shall apply to women with shaved head (munda), as well as to those of sudra caste. All these are wandering spies (sanchdrdh).
Of these spies, those who are of good family, loyal, reliable, well-trained in the art of putting on disguises appropriate to countries and trades, and possessed of knowledge of many languages and arts shall be sent by the king to espy in his own country the movements of his ministers, priests, commanders of the army, the heir-apparent, the doorkeepers, the officer in charge of the harem, the magistrate (prasdstri), the collector- general (samdhartri), the chamberlain (sannidhdtri), the commissioner (pradeshtri), the city constable (ndyaka), the officer in charge of the city (paura), the superintendent of transactions (vydvahdrika), the superintendent of manufactories (karmdntika), the assembly of councillors (mantriparishad), heads of departments (adhyakshdh), the commissary-general (dandapdla), and officers in charge of fortifications, boundaries, and wild tracts.
Fiery spies, such as are employed to hold the royal umbrella, vase, fan, and shoes, or to attend at the throne, chariot, and conveyance shall espy the public character (bdhyam chdram) of these (officers).
Classmate spies shall convey this information {i.e., that gathered by the fiery spies) to the institutes of espionage (samsthdsvarpayeyuh).
Poisoners such as a sauce-maker (siida), a cook (ardlika), procurer of water for bathing (sndpaka) shampooer, the spreader of 28 Kautilya's Arthashastra bed (dstaraka), a barber (kalpaka), toilet-maker (prasddaka), a water- servant; servants such as have taken the appearance of a hump-backed person, a dwarf, a pigmy (kirdta), the dumb, the deaf, the idiot, the blind; artisans such as actors, dancers, singers, players on musical instruments, buffoons, and a bard; as well as women shall espy the private character of these officers.
A mendicant woman shall convey this information to the institute of espionage.
The immediate officers of the institutes of espionage (samsthdndmantevdsinah) shall by making use of signs or writing (samjndlipibhih) set their own spies in motion (to ascertain the validity of the information).
Neither the institutes of espionage nor they (the wandering spies) shall know each other.
If a mendicant woman is stopped at the entrance, the line of door-keepers., spies under the guise of father and mother (mdtdpitri vyanjandh), women artisans, court-bards, or prostitutes shall, under the pretext of taking in musical instruments, or through cipher- writing (gudhalekhya), or by means of signs, convey the information to its destined place (chdram nirhareyuh.)
(Spies of the institutes of espionage) may suddenly go out under the pretext of long standing disease, or lunacy, or by setting fire (to something) or by administering poison (to some one).
When the information thus received from these three different sources is exactly of the same version, it shall be held reliable. If they (the three sources) frequently differ, the spies concerned shall either be punished in secret or dismissed.
Those spies who are referred to in Book IV, "Removal of 29 Kautilya's Arthashastra Thorns," shall receive their salaries from those kings (para, i.e., foreign) with whom they live as servants; but when they aid both the states in the work of catching hold of robbers, they shall become recipients of salaries from both the states (ubhayavetandh).
Those whose sons and wives are kept (as hostages) shall be made recipients of salaries from two states and considered as under the mission of enemies. Purity of character of such persons shall be ascertained through persons of similar profession.
Thus with regard to kings who are inimical, friendly, intermediate, of low rank, or neutral, and with regard to their eighteen government departments (ashtdldasa-tirtha), spies shall be set in motion.
The hump-backed, the dwarf, the eunuch, women of accomplishments, the dumb, and various grades of Mlechcha caste shall be spies inside their houses.
Merchant spies inside forts; saints and ascetics in the suburbs of forts; the cultivator and the recluse in country parts; herdsmen in the boundaries of the country; in forests, forest-dwellers, sramands, and chiefs of wild tribes, shall be stationed to ascertain the movements of enemies. All these spies shall be very quick in the dispatch of their work.
Spies set up by foreign kings shall also be found out by local spies; spies by spies of like profession. It is the institutes of espionage, secret or avowed, that set spies in motion.
Those chiefs whose inimical design has been found out by spies supporting the king's cause shall, in view of affording opportunity to detect the spies of foreign kings, be made to live on 30 Kautilya's Arthashastra the boundaries of the state.
[Thus ends Chapter XII, "Creation of Wandering Spies" in the section of "The Institution of Spies," in Book I. "Concerning Discipline" of the Arthas as tra of Kautilya.]
CHAPTER XIII. PROTECTION OF PARTIES FOR OR AGAINST ONES OWN CAUSE IN ONES OWN STATE.
HAVING set up spies over his prime ministers (mahdmdtra), the king shall proceed to espy both citizens and country people.
Classmate spies (satri) formed as opposing factions shall carry on disputations in places of pilgrimage (tirtha), in assemblies, houses, corporations (piiga), and amid congregations of people. One spy may say:— "This king is said to be endowed with all desirable qualities; he seems to be a stranger to such tendencies as would lead him to oppress citizens and country people by levying heavy fines and taxes."
Against those who seem to commend this opinion, another spy may interrupt the speaker and say:- "People suffering from anarchy as illustrated by the proverbial tendency of a large fish swallowing a small one (mdtsyanydydbhibhutah prajdh), first elected Manu, the Vaivasvata, to be their king; and allotted one-sixth of the grains grown and one-tenth of merchandise as sovereign dues. Fed by this payment, kings took upon themselves the responsibility of maintaining the safety and security of their subjects 31 Kautilya's Arthashastra (yogakshemavahdh), and of being answerable for the sins of their subjects when the principle of levying just punishments and taxes has been violated. Hence hermits, too, provide the king with one-sixth of the grains gleaned by them, thinking that 'it is a tax payable to him who protects us.' It is the king in whom the duties of both Indra (the rewarder) and Yama (the punisher) are blended, and he is a visible dispenser of punishments and rewards (heda- prasdda); whoever disregards kings will be visited with divine punishments, too. Hence kings shall never be despised."
Thus treacherous opponents of sovereignty shall be silenced.
Spies shall also know the rumours prevalent in the state. Spies with shaved heads or braided hair shall ascertain whether there prevails content or discontent among those who live upon the grains, cattle, and gold of the king, among those who supply the same (to the king) in weal or woe, those who keep under restraint a disaffected relative of the king or a rebellious district, as well as those who drive away an invading enemy or a wild tribe. The greater the contentment of such persons, the more shall be the honour shown to them; while those who are disaffected shall be ingratiated by rewards or conciliation; or dissension may be sown among them so that they may alienate themselves from each other, from a neighbouring enemy, from a wild tribe, or from a banished or imprisoned prince. Failing this measure, they may be so employed in collecting fines and taxes as to incur the displeasure of the people. Those who are inebriated with feelings of enmity may be put down by punishment in secret or by making them incur the displeasure of the whole country. Or having taken the sons and wives of such treacherous persons under State protection, they may be made to live in mines, lest they may afford shelter to enemies.
Those that are angry, those that are greedy, those that are alarmed, as well as those that despise the king are the instruments 32 Kautilya's Arthashastra of enemies. Spies under the guise of astrologers and tellers of omens and augury shall ascertain the relationship of such persons with each other and with foreign kings.
Honours and rewards shall be conferred upon those that are contented, while those that are disaffected shall be brought round by conciliation, by gifts, or by sowing dissension, or by punishment.
Thus in his own state a wise king shall guard factions among his people, friendly or hostile, powerful or powerless against the intrigue of foreign kings.
[Thus ends Chapter XIII, "Protection of Parties for or against One's Own Cause in One's Own State," in Book I, "Concerning Discipline" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya.]
CHAPTER XIV. WINNING OVER FACTIONS FOR OR AGAINST AN ENEMY'S CAUSE IN AN ENEMY'S STATE.
PROTECTION of parties for or against one's own cause in one's own state has been dealt with. Similar measures in connection with parties in a foreign state are to be treated of.
Those who are deluded with false promise of large rewards; those of whom one party, though equally skillful as another party in artistic work or in turning out productive or beneficial works, is slighted by bestowing larger rewards on its rival party; those who are harassed by courtiers (Vallabhd-varuddhdh); those who are invited to be slighted; those who are harassed by banishment; those who in spite of their large outlay of money have failed in their 33 Kautilya's Arthashastra undertakings; those who are prevented from the exercise of their rights or from taking possession of their inheritance; those who have fallen from their rank and honours in government service; those who are shoved to the corner by their own kinsmen; those whose women are violently assaulted; those who are thrown in jail; those who are punished in secret; those who are warned of their misdeeds; those whose property has been wholly confiscated; those who have long suffered from imprisonment; those whose relatives are banished— all these come under the group of provoked persons.
He who has fallen a victim to misfortune by his own misdeeds; he who is offended (by the king); he whose sinful deeds are brought to light; he who is alarmed at the award of punishment on a man of like guilt; he whose lands have been confiscated; he whose rebellious spirit is put down by coercive measures; he who, as a superintendent of all government departments, has suddenly amassed a large amount of wealth; he who, as a relative of such a rich man aspires to inherit his wealth; he who is disliked by the king; and he who hates the king,— all these come under the group of persons alarmed.
He who is impoverished; he who has lost much wealth; he who is niggardly; he who is addicted to evil propensities; and he who is engaged in dangerous transactions,— all these constitute the group of ambitious persons.
He who is self-sufficient; he who is fond of honours; he who is intolerant of his rival's honour; he who is esteemed low; he who is of a fiery spirit; he who is foolhardy as well as he who is not content with what he has been enjoying,— all these come under the group of haughty persons.
Of these, he who clings to a particular faction shall be so 34 Kautilya's Arthashastra deluded by spies with shaved head or braided hair as to believe that he is intriguing with that party. Partisans under provocation, for example, may be won over by telling that 'just as an elephant in rut and mounted over by a driver under intoxication tramples under its foot whatever it comes across, so this king, dispossessed of the eye of science, blindly attempts to oppress both citizens and country people; it is possible to restrain him by setting up a rival elephant against him; so have forbearance enough (to wait).'
Likewise alarmed persons may be won over by telling that 'just as a hidden snake bites and emits poison over whatever alarms it, so this king apprehensive of danger from thee will ere long emit the poison of his resentment on thee; so thou mayest better go elsewhere.'
Similarly ambitious persons may be won over by telling that 'just as a cow reared by dog-keepers gives milk to dogs, but not to Brdhmans, so this king gives milk (rewards) to those who are devoid of valour, foresight, eloquence and bravery, but not to those who are possessed of noble character; so the other king who is possessed of power to discriminate men from men may be courted. ' In like manner haughty persons may be won over by telling that 'just as a reservoir of water belonging to Chdnddlas is serviceable only to Chdnddlas, but not to others, so this king of low-birth confers his patronage only on low-born people, but not on Aryas like thee; so the other king who is possessed of power to distinguish between men and men may be courted.'
All these disaffected persons, when acquiescing to the above proposals, may be made under a solumn compact (panakarmand) to form a combination together with the spies to achieve their end.
Likewise friends of a foreign king may also be won over by 35 Kautilya's Arthashastra means of persuation and rewards, while implacable enemies may be brought round by sowing dissensions, by threats, and by pointing out the defects of their master.
[Thus ends Chapter XIV, "Winning over Factions for or against an Enemy's Cause in an Enemy's State," in Book I, "Concerning Discipline" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya.]
CHAPTER XV. THE BUSINESS OF COUNCIL MEETING.
HAVING gained a firm hold on the affection of both local and foreign parties both in his own and enemy's state, the king shall proceed to think of administrative measures.
All kinds of administrative measures are preceded by deliberations in a well-formed council. The subject matter of a council shall be entirely secret and deliberations in it shall be so carried that even birds cannot see them; for it is said that the secrecy of counsels was divulged by parrots, minas, dogs and other low creatures of mean birth. Hence without providing himself with sufficient safeguard against disclosure, he shall never enter into deliberations in a council.
Whoever discloses counsels shall be torn to pieces. The disclosure of counsels may be detected by observing changes in the attitude and countenance of envoys, ministers, and masters. Change in conduct is change in attitude (ingitamanyathdvrittih); and observation of physical appearance is countenance (dkritigrahanamdkdrah).
Maintenance of the secrecy of a council-matter, and keeping 36 Kautilya's Arthashastra guard over officers that have taken part in the deliberation over it (shall be strictly observed) till the time of starting the work so considered approaches.
Carelessness, intoxication, talking in sleep, love and other evil habits of councillors are the causes of the betrayal of counsels.
Whoever is of hidden nature or is disregarded will disclose counsels. Hence steps shall be taken to safeguard counsels against such dangers. Disclosure of counsels is advantageous to persons other than the king and his officers.
"Hence," says Bhdradvdja, "the king shall singly deliberate over secret matters; for ministers have their own ministers, and these latter some of their own; this kind of successive line of ministers tends to the disclosure of counsels.
"Hence no outside person shall know anything of the work which the king has in view. Only those who are employed to carry it out shall know it either when it is begun or when accomplished."
"No deliberation," says Visdldksha, "made by a single person will be successful; the nature of the work which a sovereign has to do is to be inferred from the consideration of both the visible and invisible causes. The perception of what is not or cannot be seen, the conclusive decision of whatever is seen, the clearance of doubts as to whatever is susceptible of two opinions, and the inference of the whole when only a part is seen— all this is possible of decision only by ministers. Hence he shall sit at deliberation with persons of wide intellect.
He shall despise none, but hear the opinions of all. A wise man shall make use of even a child's sensible utterance.
"This is," says Pardsara "ascertaining the opinions of others, 37 Kautilya's Arthashastra but not keeping counsels. He shall ask his ministers for their opinion, on a work similar to the one he has in view, telling them that "this is the work; it happened thus; what is to be done if it will turn out thus"; and he shall do as they decide. If it is done thus, both the ascertainment of opinions and maintenance of secrecy can be attained."
"Not so," says Pisuna, "for ministers, when called for their opinions regarding a distant undertaking, or an accomplished or an unaccomplished work, either approach the subject with indifference or give their opinions half-heartedly. This is a serious defect. Hence he shall consult such persons as are believed to be capable of giving decisive opinion regarding those works about which he seeks for advice. If he consults thus, he can secure good advice as well as secrecy of counsel."
"Not so," says Kautilya, "for this (kind of seeking for advice) is infinite and endless. He shall consult three or four ministers. Consultation with a single (minister) may not lead to any definite conclusion in cases of complicated issues. A single minister proceeds willfully and without restraint. In deliberating with two ministers, the king may be overpowered by their combined action, or imperiled by their mutual dissension. But with three or four ministers he will not come to any serious grief, but will arrive at satisfactory results. With ministers more than four in number, he will have to come to a decision after a good deal of trouble; nor will secrecy of counsel be maintained without much trouble. In accordance with the requirements of place, time, and nature of the work in view, he may, as he deems it proper, deliberate with one or two ministers or by himself.
Means to carry out works, command of plenty of men and wealth, allotment of time and place, remedies against dangers, and final success are the five constituents of every council-deliberation.
38 Kautilya's Arthashastra The king may ask his ministers for their opinion either individually or collectively, and ascertain their ability by judging over the reasons they assign for their opinions.
He shall lose no time when the opportunity waited for arrives; nor shall he sit long at consultation with those whose parties he intends to hurt.
The school of Manu say that the assembly of ministers (mantriparishad) shall be made to consist of twelve members.
The school of Brihaspathi say that it shall consist of sixteen members.
The school of Usanas say that it shall consist of twenty members.
But Kautilya holds that it shall consist of as many members as the needs of his dominion require (yathdsdmarthyam).
Those ministers shall have to consider all that concerns the parties of both the king and his enemy. They shall also set themselves to start the work that is not yet begun, to complete what has been begun, to improve what has been accomplished, and to enforce strict obedience to orders (niyogasampadam).
He shall supervise works in company with his officers that are near (dsannaih); and consult by sending writs (patrasampreshanena) those that are (not) near (dsanna).
One thousand sages form Indra's assembly of ministers (mantriparishad). They are his eyes. Hence he is called thousand-eyed though he possesses only two eyes.
In works of emergency, he shall call both his ministers and 39 Kautilya's Arthashastra the assembly of ministers {mantrino mantriparishadam cha), and tell them of the same. He shall do whatever the majority (bhuyishthdh) of the members suggest or whatever course of action leading to success (kdryasiddhikaram va) they point out. And while doing any work, None of his enemies (pare) shall know his secret, but he shall know the weak points of his enemy. Like a tortoise he shall draw in his limbs that are stretched out.
Just as balls of meal offered to ancestors by a person not learned in the Vedas are unfit to be eaten by wise men, so whoever is not well versed in sciences shall be unfit to hear of council deliberations.
[Thus ends Chapter XV, "The Business of Council-meeting" in Book I, "Concerning Discipline" of the Arthasdstra of Kautilya.]
CHAPTER XVI. THE MISSION OF ENVOYS.
WHOEVER has succeeded as a councillor is an envoy.