19. With respect to the explanation of the expression 'the seven Purushas.' the commentators differ as much as regarding 'the six' in ver. 16..Medh., Gov., and Kull. aGu. the great one ' or the Mahat to their previous enumeration, 'egoism and the five subtile elements/ while Nar. and Nand. add the 'portions of the Atman' (ver. 16) to those elements which they understand to be com- prised by ' the six.' That is, probably, the meaning of R&gh, also, who says, purusha^aw manaadipurushantanam saptsL/, 'of the Purushas, i. e. of those seven, the first of which is the mind, and the last of which is the Purusha.' All the commentators agree that the term Purusha, 'male or spirit,' is applied to the principles in a metaphorical sense, but they give various reasons for the fact, 'because they are for the sake of the soul/ purusha (Medh.), or ' because they were produced by the Purusha, the Atman' (Kull.). Nar. understands 'and' with avyayat and says, 'and from the im- perishable, i.e. from Prakrni.' 'The perishable' designates, of course, 'the gross bodies.'
20. This verse expresses the doctrine that the first element ether (ak&ra) possesses one quality, sound, alone; the next, wind two, sound and tangibility; the third, fire or light, three and so forth; see also Sa/rckhyasara, p. 18. Nand. places ver. 27 before this verse, and asserts that ' if some read the latter seven verses further on, that is only due to an error of the copyists.' Though vers. 20 and 27 are without any connexion with what precedes and follows, I do not think it advisable to adopt Nand.'s proposal, which I fear is based on nothing but a clever guess, against the authority of all the other commentators. If it were permissible to transpose the 12 LAWS OF MANU.
21. But in the beginning he assigned their several names, actions, and conditions to all (created beings), even according to the words of the Veda.
22. He, the Lord, also created the class of the ^god§, who are endowed with life, and whose nature is action; and the subtile class of the Sadhyas, and the eternal sacrifice.
23. But from fire^ wind, and the sun he drew forth the threefold eternal Veda, called Rik, Ya^us, and Saman, for the due performance of the sacrifice.
24. Time and the divisions of time, the lunar mansions and the planets, the rivers, the oceans, the mountains, plains, and uneven ground, 25. Austerity, speech, 'pleasure, desire, and anger, this whole creation he likewise produced, as he desired to call these beings into existence.
verses, I would propose to insert here ver. 27 and to place this verse 22. The commentators differ very much regarding the explana- tion of this verse. Medh. proposes, ' And the Lord created (for the sake) of men who are intent on performing sacrificial rites (the multitude) of the gods, the subtile class of the Sadhyas and the eternal sacrifice/ ' Others' mentioned by him, Gov. and Kull, insert another 'and' between karmatmanam and pramnam, and explain, ' The Lord created the multitude of the gods whose nature is the sacrifice and of those endowed with life.' By the 'gods whose nature is the sacrifice' they understand the inanimate implements, used at sacrifices, but frequently addressed in the Veda as divine beings, while the gods endowed with life are said to be Indra, and so forth. Ragh., with whom Nar. seems to have agreed, says, 'And the Lord created among beings endowed with life the to us invisible multitude of the gods, who by the results of their actions have obtained their divine station, or who subsist on offerings.' None of these speculations is of much use. But it may be that karman means ' sacrificial rites,' and karmatmanam may be trans- lated by ' whose nature is the sacrifice/ or ' whose divinity depends on the performance of sacrifices/ Regarding the Sadhyas, see Wilson, Vish;m-pura«a II, p. 22 (ed. Hall).
26. Moreover, in order to distinguish actions, he separated merit from demerit, and he caused the creatures to be affected by the pairs (of opposites), such as pain and pleasure.
.27. But with the minute perishable particles of the five (elements) which have been mentioned, this whole (world) is framed in due order.
28. But to whatever course of action the Lord at first appointed each (kind of beings), that alone it has spontaneously adopted in each succeeding creation.
29. Whatever he assigned to each at the (first) creation, noxiousness or harmlessness, gentleness or ferocity, virtue or sin, truth or falsehood, that clung (afterwards) spontaneously to it.
30. As at the change of the seasons each season of its own accord assumes its distinctive marks, even so corporeal beings (resume in new births) their (appointed) course of action.
31. But for the sake of the prosperity of the 26. Other pairs of opposites are desire and anger, passionate attachment and hatred, hunger and thirst, sorrow and delusion, and so forth (Kull.).
27. 'The minute perishable particles of the five (elements)' are according to Medh., Gov., and Kull. the subtile or rudimentary ele- ments which may be called ' perishable,' because they are changed to gross elements. Ragh. explains the epithet 'perishable' by adding \ because they have been produced.' The commentators offer various explanations in order to account for the insertion of this verse which interrupts the continuity of the text. Medh. thinks that it is a r£sume\ Gov. and Kull. state that it is meant to remove the doubt, whether Brahman's mental creation was effected without the help of the ' principles,' and Nar. asserts that it is meant to teach that atoms are not eternal. Nand., as stated above, note on ver. 20, places the verse immediately after ver. 19.
31. Nar. explains lokavivrz'ddhyartham, 'for the sake of the 14 LAWS OF MANU, worlds, he caused the Brdhma^a, the Kshatriya, the Vaisya, and the.Sudra to proceed from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet.
32. Dividing his own body, the Lord became half male and half female; with that (female) he produced Vira^*.
33. But know me, O most holy among the twice- born, to be the creator of this whole (world), whom that male, Vira^", himself produced, having per- formed austerities.
34. Then I, desiring to produce created beings, performed very difficult austerities, and (thereby) called into existence ten great sages, lords of created beings, 35. Marl/£i, Atri, Ahgiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Pra^etas, VasishMa, Bhrzgu, and Narada.
36. They created seven other Manus possessing great brilliancy, gods and classes of gods and great sages of measureless power, prosperity of the worlds/ by varwair lokarakshawasawvardhanartham, ' in order to protect the world by means of the castes and to make it prosperous/ Medh., Gov., and Kull., who interpret the compound by ' in order that (the inhabitants of) the worlds might multiply/ point to the benefits conferred by sacrifices of householders, III, 76. Nand. says with reference to the bearing of the verse, ' Now he speaks of the creation of the deities representing the four castes/ Regarding the origin of the castes, see Rig-veda X, 90, 12.
36. 'Manus/ i.e. 'creators in the several Manvantaras' (Medh., Gov., Kull., Ragh.). ' Gods/ i.e. 'such gods as had not been created by Brahman' (verse 22, Medh., Kull.); devanikayan, ' classes of gods ' (Nand., Nar.), means according to Medh., Kull., and Ragh. • the abodes of the gods ' (devasthanani). Ragh. gives also the meaning ' the servants of the gods/ I I 3 J. Yakshas (the servants of Kubera, the demons called) Rakshasas and Pi^a^as, Gandharvas (or musicians of the gods), Apsarases (the dancers of the gods), Asuras, (the snake-deities called) Nagas and Sarpas, (the bird-deities called) Supar/zas and the several classes of the manes, 38. Lightnings, thunderbolts and clouds, imperfect (rohita) and perfect rainbows, falling meteors, super- natural noises, comets, and heavenly lights of many kinds, 39. (Horse-faced) Kinnaras, monkeys, fishes, birds of many kinds, cattle, deer, men, and carnivorous beasts with two rows of teeth, 40. Small and large worms and beetles, moths, lice, flies, bugs, all stinging and biting insects and the several kinds of immovable things.
41. Thus was this whole (creation), both the im- movable and the movable, produced by those high- minded ones by means of austerities and at my command, (each being) according to (the results of) its actions.
42. But whatever act is stated (to belong) to (each of) those creatures here below, that I will truly declare to you, as well as their order in respect to birth.
43. Cattle, deer, carnivorous beasts with two rows of teeth, Rakshasas, PLsa^as, and men are born from the womb.
44. From eggs are born birds, snakes, crocodiles, 37. The several classes of manes are enumerated below, III, 38. Rohita is said to be an imperfect rainbow which appears to be straight, known according to Gov. by the name jastrotpata.
1 6 LAWS OF MANU.
fishes, tortoises, as well as similar terrestrial and aquatic (animals).
45. From hot moisture spring stinging and biting insects, lice, flies, bugs, and all other (creatures) of that kind which are produced by heat.
46. All plants, propagated by seed or by slips, grow from shoots; annual plants (are those) which, bearing many flowers and fruits, perish after the ripening of their fruit; 47. (Those trees) which bear fruit without flowers are called vanaspati (lords of the forest); but those which bear both flowers and fruit are called vr/ksha.
48. But the various plants with many stalks, growing from one or several roots, the different kinds of grasses, the climbing plants and the creepers spring all from seed or from slips.
49. These (plants) which are surrounded by multi- form Darkness, the result of their acts (in former existences), possess internal consciousness and expe- rience pleasure and pain.
50. The (various) conditions in this always terrible and constantly changing circle of births and deaths to which created beings are subject, are stated to 46. I read, with Medh., Gov., Nand., and Kull., tarava^ instead of the sthavara^ of the editions, and translate it, as required by the context, by 'plants.'
47. My translation of ubhayata^, 'both/ is based on Gov.'s com- ment 'vriksha/i puna£ pushpaphalenobhayenapi yukta bhavanti/ with which Nar. and Nand. agree. The latter, however, proposes to read ' ubhayatha/ 49. 'Multiform Darkness/ see below, XII, 42.
50. Bhuta, ' created beings/ means according to Gov. and Kull. kshetra^na, ' embodied souls/ According to Gov. and Nar. nityam, 'always/ must be construed with ghore, 'terrible/ Nar., however, considers nitye, 'in this eternal/ to be a better reading, which Nand. also gives.
begin with (that of) Brahman, and to end with (that of) these (just mentioned immovable creatures).
51. When he whose power is incomprehensible, had thus produced the universe and me, he dis- appeared in himself, repeatedly suppressing one period by means of the other.
52. When that divine one wakes, then this world stirs; when he slumbers tranquilly, then the universe sinks to sleep.
53. But when he reposes in calm sleep, the cor- poreal beings whose nature is action, desist from their actions and mind becomes inert.
54. When they are absorbed all at once in that great soul, then he who is the soul of all beings sweetly slumbers, free from all care and occupation.
55. When this (soul) has entered darkness, it remains for a long time united with the organs (of 51. ' Disappeared in himself/ i.e. 'he divested himself of the body which he had assumed at his own will' (Medh., Gov., Kull.). 'One period by means of the other,' i.e. 'the period of creation by means of the period of destruction' (Medh., Gov., Kull.).
52. Instead of the figurative nimilati, 'closes the eyes, sinks to sleep/ Gov. and K., read praliyate, ' is absorbed.'
53..Sarirmah, 'corporeal beings/ means according to Medh., Gov., and Kull. 'embodied souls/ Karmatmana^, 'whose nature is action/ i.e. who are endowed with actions (Nand., Nar.), means according to Medh., Gov., and Kull. ' who in consequence of their actions became incorporate/ 54. According to Gov. and Kull., this verse describes the maha- pralaya, the great or total destruction at the end of a kalpa, while the preceding referred to the antaralapralaya, the intermediate or incomplete destruction. Medh. explains 'he who is the soul of all beings ' by the S&zwkhya term Pradhana, ' the chief cause or Nature/ while Gov. and Kull. refer this expression as well as mahatman ' to the supreme soul or supreme lord ' of the Vedanta.
55-56. The commentators offer three different explanations of these two verses. Medh., Gov., and Kull., whom the translation sensation), but performs not its functions; it then leaves the corporeal frame.
56. When, being clothed with minute particles (only), it enters into vegetable or animal seed, it then assumes, united (with the fine body), a (new) corporeal frame.
57. Thus he, the imperishable one, by (alter- nately) waking and slumbering, incessantly revivifies and destroys this whole movable and immovable (creation).
given above follows, think that ayatn, 'this (soul),' refers to the individual soul, and that the two verses incidentally mention what happens to it on the death of the individual in which it re- sides. First, they say, it enters darkness, i.e. knowledge (gwana) ceases, and, though for some time the soul's connection with the organs continues, it does not perform its functions of breathing, and so forth. Next it leaves the old body. It then is enveloped by the elementary body, consisting of the puryash/aka, the eight constituents, i.e. the rudimentary elements (bhuta) and organs (indriya), mind (manas), intelligence (buddhi), memory of past actions (v&sana), merit or demerit (karman), the vital airs (vayu), and avidya. In this condition it enters the seed of some plant or the embryo of some animal and then assumes a new gross body. Nar., on the other hand, considers that the first verse gives a description of the fate of the individual soul during a swoon (murk/ia), and the second alone refers to its migration after death. Under this supposition verse 56 must be translated as follows: 1 Being of atomic size (the soul) enters vegetable or animal seed and, united (with the rudimental body), leaves its (former) corporeal frame.' Nand. finally understands by ayam, ' this (soul),' the creator (bhagavan), and thinks that the first verse describes his behaviour during the time of destruction, while the second refers to a new creation. He says, 'When he has entered darkness,' i.e. the root- evolvent or nature, ' and has remained there for a long time,' i. e. as long as the period of destruction lasts, ' then, endowed with organs, he assumes a visible shape/ i.e. he appears in the shape of the creation. His note on verse 56, where he reads sawsrz'sh/au for sawsn'sh/a^, is too short to make it intelligible how he gets over the difficulties opposed to his interpretation.
58. But he having composed these Institutes (of the sacred law), himself taught them, according to the rule, to me alone in the beginning; next I (taught them) to Mari/^i and the other sages.
59. Bhrzgu, here, will fully recite to you these Institutes; for that sage learned the whole in its entirety from me.
60. Then that great sage BhWgu, being thus addressed by Manu, spoke, pleased in his heart, to all the sages, 'Listen!'
61. Six other high-minded, very powerful Manus, who belong to the race of this Manu, the descendant of the Self-existent (Svayambhu), and who have severally produced created beings, 62. (Are) Svaro/£isha, Auttami, Tamasa, Raivata, A^akshusha, possessing great lustre, and the son of Vivasvat.
63. These seven very glorious Manus, the first among whom is Svayambhuva, produced and pro- tected this whole movable and immovable (creation), each during the period (allotted to him).
64. Eighteen nimeshas (twinklings of the eye, are one kash/M), thirty kash/^as one kala, thirty kalas one muhurta, and as many (muhurtas) one day and night.
58. 'According to the rule,' i.e. 'with the subsidiary ceremonies enjoined in the -Sastra' (Kull.), or 'with due attention, carefully' (Medh., Gov.).
61.' Who belong to the race Of this Manu Svayambhuva/ i. e. ' who were born in the same race or family, for they were all immediately created by Brahman and thus belong to one race' (Medh.).
64. As tavata^, ' as many/ stands in the accusative, Medh., Gov., and Kull. understand vidyat ' one should know to be.' But Nar. is probably right in assuming a vibhaktivyatyaya, i.e. that the author used the accusative because the nominative did not suit the metre.
65. The sun divides days and nights, both human and divine, the night (being intended) for the repose of created beings and the day for exertion.
66. A month is a day and a night of the manes, but the division is according to fortnights. The dark (fortnight) is their day for active exertion, the bright (fortnight) their night for sleep.
67. A year is a day and a night of the gods; their division is (as follows): the half year during which the sun progresses to the north will be the day, that during which it goes southwards the night.
68. But hear now the brief (description of) the duration of a night and a day of Brahman and of the several ages (of the world, yuga) according to their order.
69. They declare that the Krzta age (consists of) four thousand years (of the gods); the twilight pre- ceding it consists of as many hundreds, and the twilight following it of the same number.
70. In the other three ages with their twilights preceding and following, the thousands and hundreds are diminished by one (in each).
71. These twelve thousand (years) which thus have been just mentioned as the total of four (human) ages, are called one age of the gods.
72. But know that the sum of one thousand ages of the gods (makes) one day of Brahman, and that his night has the same length.
73. Those (only, who) know that the holy day of Nand., who merely substitutes ' tavanta^ ' for ' tavata^/ seems to have held the same opinion.
66. Thus the moon regulates time for the manes.
69-71. Wilson, Vishwu-purawa I, pp. 49-50 (ed. Hall).
73. According to ihe commentators the word pu«ya, ' holy/ is 1,77- THE CREATION. 21 Brahman, indeed, ends after (the completion of) one thousand ages (of the gods) and that his night lasts as long, (are really) men acquainted with (the length of) days and nights.
74. At the end of that day and night he who was asleep, awakes and, after awaking, creates mind, which is both real and unreal.
75. Mind, impelled by (Brahman's) desire to create, performs the work of creation by modifying itself, thence ether is produced; they declare that sound is the quality of the latter.
76. But from ether, modifying itself, springs the pure, powerful wind, the vehicle of all perfumes; that is held to possess the quality of touch, 77. Next from wind, modifying itself, proceeds the brilliant light, which illuminates and dispels used in order to indicate that the knowledge of the duration of Brahman's day is ' meritorious.'
74. Two explanations of the second half of the verse are offered by the commentators. It may mean either that Brahman on awaking from his sleep first creates the great principle (mahat), which here, as elsewhere, is called manas, ' mind/ or that he appoints (srz^ati) his own internal organ or mind (manas), which at an intermediate destruction (avantara or antaralapralaya) remains in existence, to create the world. Medh. and Kull. give both explanations, and prefer the former. Gov. gives the second alone, while Nar. and Nand. adhere to the first. The latter takes manas as denoting the three principles, the great one, egoism, and mind, and explains sadasadatmakam, 'which is both real and unreal/ as in verse 14, by prakrz'tivikrz'tyatmakam, 'being both an evolvent and an evolute.'
75. 'Thence/ i.e. 'from mind changed to egoism/ Nar. (simi- larly Kull.), or ' from Brahman.'
76. As the Sawkhya doctrine (Sawkhyakarika, ver. 25) makes all the rudimentary elements proceed from egoism, Medh. takes the first words of the verse to mean, ' But from egoism which modifies itself, wind springs next after ether.' He, of course, adopts the same trick of interpretation in the following three verses.
darkness; that is declared to possess the quality of colour; yS. And from light, modifying itself, (is produced) water, possessing the quality of taste, from water earth which has the quality of smell; such is the creation in the beginning.
79. The before-mentioned age of the gods, (or) twelve thousand (of their years), being multiplied by seventy-one, (constitutes what) is here named the period of a Manu (Manvantara).
80. The Manvantaras, the creations and destruc- tions (of the world, are) numberless; sporting, as it were, Brahman repeats this again and again.
81. In the Kr/ta age Dharma is four-footed and entire, and (so is) Truth; nor does any gain accrue to men by unrighteousness.
82. In the other (three ages), by reason of (unjust) gains (agama), Dharma is deprived successively of 78. 'In the beginning,' i.e. 'after a total destruction' (maM- pralaya), (Kull.); ' after an intermediate destruction' (Gov., Nar.); 'before the creation of the mundane egg1 (Nand.).
81. The reason why Dharma, 'justice or law,' is said to be ^atushpat is explained, as Kull. points out, by Manu VIII, 16. Re- garding the ulterior signification of the myth which represents Dharma as a four-footed animal, the following opinions are ad- vanced: 1. The four feet represent the four principal priests at the sacrifice (Medh.); 2. or the four chief castes (Medh., Nand.); 3. or the four chief means of gaining merit, austerities, knowledge, sacrifices, and liberality, see below, verse 86 (Medh., Kull., Nar., K.); 4. or finally the four kinds of speech, mentioned Rig-veda I, 164, 45 (Medh.). All the commentators agree in stating that Truth, though comprised in the Dharma, is mentioned specially in order to show its paramount importance. Nand. reads the last words nadharmo n&gama^ kask'm, &c, and explains, ' Neither any demerit nor any sacred lore, »Sastra, approached men, i. e. no Institutes of the law were necessary.'
82. Medh. explains the first half-verse differently, 'In the other three ages, Dharma, the sacred law, (which is derived) from the , 1,85. THE CREATION. 23 one foot, and through (the prevalence of) theft, falsehood, and fraud the merit (gained by men) is diminished by one fourth (in each).
83. (Men are) free from disease, accomplish all their aims, and live four hundred years in the Knta age, but in the Treta and (in each of) the succeeding (ages) their life is lessened by one quarter.
84. The life of mortals, mentioned in the Veda, the desired results of sacrificial rites and the (super- natural) power of embodied (spirits) are fruits pro- portioned among men according to (the character of) the age.
85. One set of duties (is prescribed) for men in the Krz'ta age, different ones in the Treta and in the sacred lore (agama), i.e. the Veda, is made to withdraw one foot after the other, one foot in each age, i.e. disappears (gradually) because the power of men to learn and to remember the sacred texts diminishes.' Gov. says, 'But in the Treta and the other ages, Dharma, the sacred law, (derived) from the sacred lore (agama), the -Sastra, i. e. the performance of sacrifices and so forth, is made to withdraw, i.e. is diminished successively by one quarter in each age, through (the prevalence of) theft, falsehood, and fraud/ Nand. finally differs still more, ' In the other three ages, i.e. the Treta and the rest, Dharma, (virtue or justice is determined) by means of the sacred lore (agama)/ the -Sastra, but this Dharma is lessened by one quarter in each; 'lessening the Dharma ' is intended to convey the meaning of ' lessening the determination of the Dharma/ The translation follows Kull., Nar., and Ragh.
83. In order to reconcile this statement regarding the age of men in the Krz'ta age with various passages of the Mahabharata and the Pura/zas, which attribute to certain heroes and sages lives of many thousand years, the commentators explain our passage as meaning that four hundred years were the natural term of life, which, however, might be lengthened through the performance of austerities. They further assert that in the passage Kanaka 34, 5, which names one hundred years as the term of human existence, the numeral is used in the sense of ' many/ s A Dvapara, and (again) another (set) in the Kali, in proportion as (those) ages decrease in length.
86. In the Krzta age the chief (virtue) is declared to be (the performance oO austerities, in the Treta (divine) knowledge, in the Dvapara (the performance of) sacrifices, in the Kali liberality alone.
87. But in order to protect this universe He, the most resplendent one, assigned separate (duties and) occupations to those who sprang from his mouth, arms, thighs, and feet.
88. To Brahma^as he assigned teaching and studying (the Veda), sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, giving and accepting (of alms).
89. The Kshatriya he commanded to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures; 90. The Vaisya to tend cattle, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), to trade, to lend money, and to cultivate land.
91. One occupation only the lord prescribed to the 6udra, to serve meekly even these (other) three castes.
92. Man is stated to be purer above the navel (than below); hence the Self-existent (Svayambhu) has declared the purest (part) of him (to be) his mouth.
93. As the Brahma^a sprang from (Brahman's) 87. See above, verse 31.
89. I read with Medh., Ragh., and K. samadwat, 'he com- manded/ for samasata/^, ' briefly.' Nand. reads akalpayat.
93. Dharmata/fc prabhii/$, ' by right the lord/ agrees with Nar.'s and Nand/s glosses. Medh., Gov., Kull, and Ragh. say, ' he is with 1,98. THE CREATION. 25 mouth, as he was the first-born, and as he possesses the Veda, he is by right the lord of this whole creation.
94. For the Self-existent (Svayambhu), having performed austerities, produced him first from his own mouth, in order that the offerings might be conveyed to the gods and manes and that this universe might be preserved.
95. What created being can surpass him, through whose mouth the gods continually consume the sacrificial viands and the manes the offerings to the dead?
96. Of created beings the most excellent are said to be those which are animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence; of the intel- ligent, mankind; and of men, the Brahma;ias; 97. Of Brahma^as, those learned (in the Veda); of the learned, those who recognise (the necessity and the manner of performing the prescribed duties); of those who possess this knowledge, those who per- form them; of the performers, those who know the Brahman.
98. The very birth of a Brahma^a is a^ri^etexnal incarnation of the sacred lawj for he is born to (fulfil) the sacred law, and becomes one with Brahman.
respect to the law the lord, i.e. entitled to prescribe their duties to this whole creation.'
94. Tapas taptva, 'having performed austerities,' is added, as Nand. says, in order to show ' particularly great consideration' (tapas taptvety adarati^aya^). See above, verses 33, 34, 41.
95. Medh., Nar., and Nand. explain kn'tabuddhaya^,'who recog- nise (the necessity and the manner of performing the prescribed duties),' by 'who know the meaning of the Veda.' ' Those who know the Brahman,' i.e,' the sacred lore which leads to final emancipation/ 99. A Brahma^a, coming into existence, is born as the highest on earth, the lord of all created beings, for the protection of the treasury of the law.
100. Whatever exists in the world is the property of the Brahma^a; on account of the excellence of his origin the Brahma^a is, indeed, entitled to it all.
10 1. The Brahma^a eats but his own food, wears but his own apparel, bestows but his own in alms; other mortals subsist through the benevolence of the Brahma/za.