" He suspected that there was only Chaos, and nothing more."
" If things did not exist then," replied Hsia Ko, " how could they be in existence now? Or will the men of future ages be right in denying the existence of things at the present time? " " Things in that case," pursued T'ang, " have no before nor after? " Hsia Ko replied: "To the beginning and end of things there is no precise limit. Beginning may be end, and end may be beginning. How can we conceive of any fixed period to either?
" That which we call an end at the present moment may be the beginning of a new thing, and that which we call a beginning may, contrariwise, be the end of something. End and beginning succeed one another until at last they cannot be distinguished."
THE ANTINOMY OF SPACE 83 But when it comes to something outside matter in space, or anterior to events in time, our know ledge fails us."
" Then, upwards and downwards and in every direction space is a finite quantity? " Ko replied: " I do not know."
" It was not so much that he did not know as that it is unknowable."
T'ang asked the question again with more insistence, and Ko said: "It may be that space is infinite, or it may be that it is limited. How can I tell? But beyond infinity there must again exist non-infinity, and within the unlimited again that which is not unlimited.
Lieh Tzu means that in this universe of relativity there must be contraries, even to a negative. We are only brought back, however, to our starting-point, for, as the commentator points out, that which is not infinite and not unlimited really stands for that which is finite and limited.
It is this consideration— that infinity must be succeeded by non-infinity, and the unlimited by the not-unlimited— that enables me to apprehend the infinity and unlimited extent of space, but does not allow me to conceive of its being finite and limited."
T'ang continued his inquiries, saying: " What is there beyond the Four Seas? ': 84 THE QUESTIONS OF T'ANG That is, the inhabited world as known to the Chinese.
Ko replied: " Just what there is here in the province of Ch'i."
" How can you prove that? " asked T'ang.
"When travelling eastwards," said Ko, " I came to the land of Ying, where the inhabitants were nowise different from those in this part of the country. I inquired about the countries east of Ying, and found that they, too, were similar to their neighbour. Travelling west wards, I came to Pin, where the inhabitants were similar to our own countrymen. I inquired about the countries west of Pin, and found that they were again similar to Pin. That is how I know that the regions within the Four Seas, the Four Wildernesses and the Four Uttermost Ends of the Earth are nowise different from the country we ourselves inhabit. Thus, the lesser is always enclosed by a greater, without ever reaching an end. Heaven and earth, which enclose the myriad objects of creation, are themselves en closed in some outer shell.
" That which contains heaven and earth is the Great Void."
Enclosing heaven and earth and the myriad objects within them, this outer shell is infinite and immeasurable. How do we know but that there is some mightier universe in existence AN EXPLANATORY MYTH 85 outside our own? That is a question to which we can give no answer.
" Heaven and earth, then, are themselves only material objects, and therefore imperfect. Hence it is that Nii Kua of old fashioned many-coloured blocks of stone to repair the defective parts.
" Nii Kua, being a divine man, was able to refine and extract the essence of the five constituents of matter."
He cut off the legs of the Ao and used them to support the four corners of the heavens.
This Chinese " Atlas " was a gigantic sea-turtle.
Later on, Kung Kung fought with Chuan Hsu for the throne, and, blundering in his rage against Mount Pu-chou, he snapped the pillar which connects Heaven and earth.
At the north-western corner.
That is why Heaven dips downwards to the north-west, so that sun, moon and stars travel towards that quarter. The earth, on the other hand, is now not large enough to fill up the south-east, so that all rivers and streams roll in that direction."
An ingenious theory to account for the apparent westward 86 THE QUESTIONS OF T'ANG revolution of the heavenly bodies, as also for the easterly trend of the great Chinese rivers.
The two mountains T'ai-hsing and Wang-wu, which cover an area of 700 square li, and rise to an enormous altitude, originally stood in the south of the Chi district and north of Ho-yang. The Simpleton of the North Mountain, an old man of ninety, dwelt opposite these mountains, and was vexed in spirit because their northern flanks blocked the way to travellers, who had to go all the way round. So he called his family together, and broached a plan. " Let us," he said, "put forth our utmost strength to clear away this obstacle, and cut right through the mountains until we come to Han-yin. What say you? " They all assented except his wife, who made objections and said: " My goodman has not the strength to sweep away a dunghill, let alone two such mountains as T'ai-hsing and Wang-wu. Besides, where will you put all the earth and stones that you dig up? " The others replied that they would throw them on the promontory of P'o-hai. So the old man, followed by his son and grandson, sallied forth with their pickaxes, and the three of them began hewing away at the rocks, and cutting up the soil, and carting it away in baskets to the promontory of P'o-hai. A widowed woman who lived near had a little MOVING MOUNTAINS 87 MOVING MOUNTAINS 87 boy who, though he was only just shedding his milk teeth, came skipping along to give them what help he could. Engrossed in their toil, they never went home except once at the turn of the season.
The Wise Old Man of the River-bend burst out laughing and urged them to stop. " Great indeed is your witlessness! " he said. " With the poor remaining strength of your declining years you will not succeed in removing a hair's breadth of the mountain, much less the whole vast mass of rock and soil." With a sigh, the Simpleton of the North Mountain replied: " Surely it is you who are narrow-minded and unreasonable. You are not to be compared with the widow's son, despite his puny strength. Though I myself must die, I shall leave a son behind me, and through him a grandson. That grandson will beget sons in his turn, and those sons will also have sons and grandsons. With all this posterity, my line will not die out, while on the other hand the mountain will receive no increment or addi tion. Why then should I despair of levelling it to the ground at last? " The Wise Old Man of the River-bend had nothing to say in reply.
One of the serpent-brandishing deities heard of the undertaking and, fearing that it might never be finished, went and told God Almighty, who was touched by the old man's simple faith, and commanded the two sons of K'ua 0 to transport 88 THE QUESTIONS OF T'ANG the mountains, one to the extreme north-east, the other to the southern corner of Yung.
In the south-west. That is, as far apart as possible. K'ua O was apparently a god of strength.
Ever since then, the region lying between Chi in the north and Han in the south has been an unbroken plain.
Roughly, the modern province of Honan.
Kung-hu of Lu and Ch'i-ying of Chao both fell ill at the same time, and called in the aid of the great Pien-ch'iao.
A famous physician of the fifth century B.C.
Pien-ch'iao cured them both, and when they were well again he told them that the malady they had been suffering from was one that attacked the internal organs from without, and for that reason was curable by the application of vegetable and mineral drugs. " But," he added, " each of you is also the victim of a congenital disease, which has grown along with the body itself. Would you like me now to grapple with this? " They said, " Yes; " but asked to hear his diagnosis first." Pien-ch'iao turned to Kung-hu. '' Your mental powers," he said, " are strong, but AN EXCHANGE OF HEARTS 89 your character is weak. Hence, though fruitful in plans, you are lacking in decision. Ch'i-ying's mental powers, on the other hand, are weak, while his character is strong. Hence there is want of forethought, and he is placed at a disad vantage by the narrowness of his aim. Now, if I can effect an exchange of hearts between you, the good will be equally balanced in both."
That is, Kung-hu, who has the weaker character, will get weaker brain-power to match, while Ch'i-ying, with the stronger will, receives a stronger mind to direct it. Though it may be that Ch'i-ying has the best of the bargain, each man, under the new arrangement, will at any rate be perfectly well balanced. The heart, as we have seen, was regarded as the seat of the mental faculties.
So saying, Pien-ch'iao administered to each of them a potion of medicated wine, which threw them into a death-like trance lasting three days.
A striking proof of the knowledge and practical application of anaesthetics at a very early date.
Then, making an incision in their breasts, he took out each man's heart and placed it in the other's body, poulticing the wounds with herbs of marvellous efficacy.
When the two men regained consciousness, they looked exactly the same as before; and, taking their leave, they returned home. Only it was Kung-hu who went to Ch'i-ying's house, 90 THE QUESTIONS OF T'ANG where Ch'i-y ing's wife and children naturally did not recognise him, while Ch'i-ying went to Kung-hu's house and was not recognised either. This led to a lawsuit between the two families, and Pien-ch'iao was called in as ar bitrator. On his explaining how the matter stood, peace was once more restored.
King Mu of Chou made a tour of inspection in the west. He crossed the K'un-lun range, but turned back before he reached the Yen mountains.
" The place where the sun sets."
On his return journey, before arriving in China, a certain artificer was presented to him, by name Yen Shih. King Mu received him in audience, and asked what he could do. "I will do anything," replied Yen Shih, " that your Majesty may please to command. But there is a piece of work, already finished, that I should like to submit first to your Majesty's inspection." " Bring it with you to-morrow," said the King, " and we will look at it together." So Yen Shih called again the next day, and was duly admitted to the royal presence. "Who is that man accompanying you? " asked the King. " That, Sire, is my own handiwork.
A MARVELLOUS AUTOMATON 91 He can sing and he can act." The King stared at the figure in astonishment. It walked with rapid strides, moving its head up and down, so that any one would have taken it for a live human being. The artificer touched its chin, and it began singing, perfectly in tune. He touched its hand, and it started posturing, keeping perfect time. It went through any number of movements suggested by its owner's fancy. The King, looking on with his favourite concubine and the other inmates of his harem, could hardly persuade himself that it was not real. As the performance was drawing to an end, the automaton winked his eye and made sundry advances to the ladies in attendance on the King. This, however, threw the King into a passion, and he would have put Yen Shih to death on the spot had not the latter, in mortal terror, instantly pulled the automaton to pieces to let him see what it really was. And lo! it turned out to be merely a conglomeration of leather, wood, glue and paint, variously coloured white, black, red and blue. Examining it closely, the King found all the internal organs complete — liver, gall, heart, lungs, spleen, kidneys, stomach and intestines — and, over these, again, muscles and bones and limbs with their joints, skin and teeth and hair, all of them artificial. Not a part but was fashioned with the utmost nicety and skill; and when it was 92 THE QUESTIONS OF T'ANG put together again, the figure presented the same appearance as when first brought in. The King tried the effect of taking away the heart, and found that the mouth would no longer utter a sound; he took away the liver, and the eyes could no longer see; he took away the kidneys, and the legs lost their power of loco motion.
Now the King was delighted. Drawing a deep breath, he exclaimed: " Can it be that human skill is really on a par with that of the Creator? " And forthwith he gave an order for two extra chariots, in which he took home with him the artificer and his handiwork.
Now, Pan Shu, with his cloud-scaling ladder, and Mo Ti, with his flying kite, thought that they had reached the limits of human achievement.
" Pan Shu made a cloud-ladder by which he could mount to the sky and assail the heights of heaven; Mo Ti made a wooden kite which would fly for three days without coming down."
But when Yen Shih's wonderful piece of work had been brought to their knowledge, the two philosophers never again ventured to boast of their accomplishments, and ceased to busy themselves so frequently with the square and compasses.
Hei Luan of Wei had a secret grudge against A BLOOD-FEUD 93 Ch'iu Ping-ehang, for which he slew him; and Lai Tan, the son of Ch'iu Ping-chang, plotted vengeance against his father's enemy. Lai Tan's spirit was very fierce, but his body was very slight. You could count the grains of rice that he ate, and he was at the mercy of every gust of wind. For all the anger in his heart, he was not strong enough to take his revenge in open fight, and he was ashamed to seek help from others. Nevertheless he swore, with his hand on his sword, that he would have the blood of Hei Luan. This Hei Luan was the most ferocious character of his day, and in brute strength he was a match for a hundred men. His bones and sinews, skin and flesh were cast in superhuman mould. He would stretch out his neck to the blade or bare his breast to the arrow, but the sharp steel would bend or break, and his body show no scar from the impact. Trusting to his native strength, he looked disdain fully upon Lai Tan as a mere fledgling.
Lai Tan had a friend Shen T'a, who said to him: ;< You have a bitter feud against Hei Luan, and Hei Luan treats you with sovereign contempt. What is your plan of action? " Shedding tears, Lai Tan besought his friend's counsel. " Well," said Shen T'a, "I am told that K'ung Chou of Wei has inherited, through an ancestor, a sword formerly possessed by the Yin Emperors, of such magical power that a single child wielding 94 THE QUESTIONS OF T'ANG it can put to flight the embattled hosts of an entire army. Why not sue for the loan of this sword? " Acting on this advice, Lai Tan betook himself to Wei and had an interview with K'ung Chou. Following the usage of supplicants, he first went through the ceremony of handing over his wife and children, and then stated his request. " I have three swords," replied K'ung Chou, " but with none of them can you kill a man. You may choose which you like. First, however, let me describe their qualities. The first sword is called * Light-absorber.' It is in visible to the eye, and when you swing it you cannot tell that there is anything there. Things struck by it retain an unbroken surface, and it will pass through a man's body without his knowing it. The second is called ' Shadow- container.' If you face north and examine it just at the point of dawn, when day meets night and darkness is giving way to light, it appears misty and. dim, as though there were something there, the shape of which is not discernible. Things struck by it give out a low sound, and it passes through men's bodies without causing them any pain. The third is called { Night- tempered,' because in broad daylight you only see its shadow and not the brightness of its blade, while at night you see not the sword itself but the dazzling light which it emits. " Alluding to its reflecting power."
THE THREE MAGIC SWORDS 95 The objects which it strikes are cleft through with a sibilant sound, but the line of cleavage closes up immediately. Pain is felt, but no blood remains on the blade. These three precious heirlooms have been handed down for thirteen generations, but have never been in actual use. They lie stored away in a box, the seals of which have never been broken." " In spite of what you tell me," said Lai Tan, "I should like to borrow the third sword." K'ung Chou then returned his wife and children to him, and they fasted together for seven days. On the seventh day, in the dusk of evening, he knelt down and presented the third sword to Lai Tan, who received it with two low obeisances and went home again.
" He chose the third of the swords because it could be both handled and seen."
Grasping his new weapon, Lai Tan now sought out his enemy, and found him lying in a drunken stupor at his window. He cut clean through his body in three places between the neck and the navel, but Hei Luan was quite unconscious of it. Thinking he was dead, Lai Tan made off as fast as he could, and happening to meet Hei Luan's son at the door, he struck at him three times with his sword. But it was like hitting the empty air. Hei Luan's son laughed 96 THE QUESTIONS OF T'ANG and said: "Why are you motioning to me in that silly way with your hand? " It will be remembered that the sword was invisible in daylight.
Realising at last that the sword had no power to kill a man, Lai Tan heaved a sigh and returned home.
When Hei Luan recovered from the effects of his debauch, he was angry with his wife: " What do you mean by letting me lie exposed to a draught? " he growled; "it has given me a sore throat and aching pains in the small of my back." " Why," said his son, " I am also feeling a pain in my body, and a stiffness in my limbs. Lai Tan, you know, was here a little time ago and, meeting me at the door, made three gestures, which seem somehow to have been the cause of it. How he hates us, to be sure! " Thus, the improper use of divine weapons only leads to discomfiture. In this allegory, Lieh Tzii is satirising the blood-feud, which must have been a terrible feature of the lawless times in which he lived. The powerlessness of the magic sword to kill may symbolically represent the essential futility of the vendetta which perpetuates itself from father to son.
BOOK VI EFFORT AND DESTINY EFFORT said to Destiny: I have purposely avoided the familiar modern terms, Fate and Free will, which might seem to furnish the best equivalent to li and ming. Li is the ordinary word for " strength " or " force," and here indicates human effort exerted in some definite direction (the German " streben ") as opposed to the blind and unconscious workings of Nature or Tao.
" Your achievements are not equal to mine." " Pray what do you achieve in the working of things," replied Destiny, " that you would com pare yourself with me? " " Why," said Effort, " the length of man's life, his measure of success, his rank, and his wealth, are all things which I have the power to determine." To this, Destiny made reply: " P'eng Tsu's wisdom did not exceed that of Yao and Shun, yet he lived to the age of eight hundred. Yen Yiian's ability was not inferior to that of the average man, yet he died at the early age of thirty- two. The virtue of Confucius was not less than that of the feudal 98 EFFORT AND DESTINY princes, yet he was reduced to sore straits between Ch'en and Ts'ai.
See The Sayings of Confucius, p. 115.
The conduct of Chou, of the Yin dynasty, did not surpass that of the Three Men of Virtue, yet he occupied a kingly throne.
Wei Tzu, Chi Tzu and Pi Kan were all relatives of Chou Hsin, by whose orders the last-named was disembowelled.
Chi Cha would not accept the overlordship of Wu, while T'ien Heng usurped sole power in Ch'i. Po I and Shu Ch'i starved to death at Shou-yang, while Chi Shih waxed rich at Chan- ch'in. If these results were compassed by your efforts, how is it that you allotted long life to P'eng Tsu and an untimely death to Yen Yuan; that you awarded discomfiture to the sage and success to the impious, humiliation to the wise man and high honours to the fool, poverty to the good and wealth to the wicked? " " If, as you say," rejoined Effort, "I have really no control over events, is it not, then, owing to your manage ment that things turn out as they do? " Destiny replied: ' ' The very name ' Destiny ' Something already immutably fixed.
shows that there can be no question of manage- FIGHT NOT AGAINST FATE 99 ment in the case. When the way is straight, I push on; when it is crooked, I let be. Old age and early death, failure and success, high rank and humble station, riches and poverty — all these come naturally and of themselves. Of their ultimate causes, I am ignorant; how could it be otherwise? " " Being what it is, without knowing why — that is the meaning of Destiny. What room is there for management here? " Yang Chu had a friend called Chi Liang, who fell ill. In seven days' time his illness had become very grave; medical aid was summoned, and his sons stood weeping round his bed. Chi Liang said to Yang Chu: " Such excess, of emotion shows my children to be degenerate. Will you kindly sing them something which will enlighten their minds? " Yang Chu then chanted the following words: " How should men possess the knowledge which God Himself has not? Over his destiny man has no control, and can look for no help from God. You and I know this for truth, but our knowledge is not shared by sorcerers and quacks."
The sons, however, did not understand, and finally called in three physicians, Dr. Chiao, Dr. Yii and Dr. Lu. They all diagnosed his 100 EFFORT AND DESTINY complaint; and Dr. Chiao delivered his opinion first: "The hot and cold elements of your body," he said to Chi Liang, " are not in harmonious accord, and the impermeable and infundibular parts are mutually disproportionate. The origin of your malady is traceable to dis ordered appetites, and to the dissipation of your vital essence through worry and care. Neither God nor devil is to blame. Although the illness is grave, it is amenable to treatment." Chi Liang said: " You are only one of the common ruck," and speedily got rid of him. Then Dr Yii came forward and said: " You were born with too little nervous force, and were too freely fed with mother's milk. Your illness is not one that has developed in a matter of twenty-four hours; the causes which have led up to it are of gradual growth. It is incurable." Chi Liang replied: " You are a good doctor," and told them to give him some food. Lastly, Dr. Lu said: " Your illness is attributable neither to God, nor to man, nor to the agency of spirits. It was already fore-ordained in the mind of Provi dence when you were endowed with this bodily form at birth. What possible good can herbs and drugs do you? " " You are a heaven-born physician indeed! " cried Chi Liang; and he sent him away laden with presents.
Not long after, his illness disappeared of itself.
DEATH NO CAUSE FOR GRIEF 101 Duke Ching of Ch'i was travelling across the northern flank of the Ox-mountain in the direction of the capital. Gazing at the view before him, he burst into a flood of tears, exclaiming: " What a lovely scene! How verdant and luxuriantly wooded! To think that some day I must die and leave my kingdom, passing away like running water! If only there were no such thing as death, nothing should induce me to stir from this spot." Two of the Ministers in attend ance on the Duke, taking their cue from him, also began to weep, saying: " We, who are dependent on your Highness's bounty, whose food is of an inferior sort, who have to ride on unbroken horses or in jolting carts — even we do not want to die. How much less our sovereign liege! " Yen Tzu, meanwhile, was standing by, with a broad smile on his face. The Duke wiped away his tears and, looking at him, said: " To-day I am stricken with grief on my journey, and both K'ung and Chii mingle their tears with mine. How is it that you alone can smile? " Yen Tzu replied: "If the worthy ruler were to remain in perpetual possession of his realm, Duke T'ai and Duke Huan would still be exercising their sway. If the bold ruler were to remain in perpetual possession, Duke Chuang and Duke Ling would still be ruling the land. But if all these rulers were now in possession, where would your High- 102 EFFORT AND DESTINY ness be? Why, standing in the furrowed fields, clad in coir cape and hat!
The ordinary garb of a Chinese peasant.
Condemned to a hard life on earth, you would have had no time, I warrant, for brooding over death. Again, how did you yourself come to occupy this throne? By a series of successive reigns and removals, until at last your turn came. And are you alone going to weep and lament over this order of things? That is unmanly. It was the sight of these two objects — an unmanly prince and his fawning attendants — that was affording me food for laughter just now."
Duke Ching felt much ashamed and, raising his goblet, fined himself and his obsequious courtiers two cups of wine apiece.
There was once a man, Tung-men Wu of Wei, who when his son died testified no grief. His house-steward said to him: " The love you bore your son could hardly be equalled by that of any other parent. Why, then, do you not mourn for him now that he is dead? " "There was a time," replied Tung-men Wu, "when I had no son. During the whole period that elapsed before my son was born, I never had occasion to grieve. Now that my son is dead, I am only in NATURAL STOICISM 103 the same condition as I was before I had a son. What reason have I, then, to mourn? " There is a story of Plutarch consoling his wife in exactly similar terms after the death of their daughter.
The husbandman takes his measures according to the season, the trader occupies himself with gain, the craftsman strives to master his art, the official pursues power. Here we have the opera tion of human forces.
Or "effort." See p. 97.
But the husbandman has seasons of rain and seasons of drought, the trader meets with gains and losses, the craftsman experiences both failure and success, the official finds opportunities or the reverse. Here we see the working of Destiny.
BOOK VII CAUSALITY IN the course of Lieh Tzu's instruction by Hu- ch'iu Tzu-lin, the latter said to him: " You must familiarise yourself with the theory of consequents before you can talk of regulating conduct." Lieh Tzu said: "Will you explain what you mean by the theory of consequents? " " Look at your shadow," said his Master, " and then you will know." Lieh turned and looked at his shadow. When his body was bent, the shadow was crooked; when his body was up right, the shadow was straight. Thus it appeared that the attributes of straightness and crooked ness were not inherent in the shadow, but corre sponded to certain positions of the body. Like wise, contraction and extension are not inherent in the subject, but take place in obedience to external causes. Holding this theory of conse quents is to be at home in the antecedent.
The Law of Causality is the foundation of all science.
CAUSE AND EFFECT 105