clear to him and he knows that it is of gold. The parables of the prophets, peace be on them, are similar. Their external meaning contains wisdom that is useful in many respects, among which is the welfare of human societies,36 as is shown by the external meaning of Proverbs and of similar sayings. Their internal meaning, on the other hand, contains wisdom that is useful for beliefs concerned with the truth as it is.
Know that the prophetic parables are of two kinds. In some of these parables each word has a meaning, while in others the parable as a whole indicates the whole of the intended meaning. In such a parable very many words are to be found, not every one of which adds something to the intended meaning. They serve rather to embellish the parable [ and to render it more coherent or to conceal further the intended meaning; hence the speech proceeds in such a way as to accord with everything required by the parable’s external meaning. Understand this well.
An example of the first kind of prophetic parable is the following text: And behold a ladder set up on the earth, and so on,57 In this text, the word ladder indicates one subject; the words set up on the earth indicate a second subject; the words and the top of it reached to heaven indicate a third subject; the words and behold the angels of God indicate a fourth subject; the word 35. A verbal form deriving from the same root as the word maskiyyoth. Gen. 26:8.
36. Literally: the weal of the circumstances of the human societies.
37. Gen. 28:12—13. After the word earth, the verses read: and the top of it reached to heaven; and behold the angels of God ascending and descending on it. And behold the Lord stood above it.
8 a ] The Guide of the Perplexed I jj ascending indicates a fifth subject; the words and descending indicate a sixth subject; and the words And behold the Lord stood above it indicate a seventh subject. Thus every word occurring in this parable refers to an additional subject in the complex of subjects represented by the parable as a whole.
An example of the second kind of prophetic parable is the following text: For at the window of my house I looked forth through my lattice; And I beheld among the thoughtless ones, I discerned among the youths, A young man void of understanding, Passing through the street near her corner, And he went the way to her house; In the twilight, in the evening of the day, In the blackness of night and the darkness. And, behold, there met him a woman With the attire of a harlot, and wily of heart. She is riotous and rebellious, and so on.58 Now she is in the streets, now in the broad places, and so on.59 So she caught him, and so on.*0 Sacrifices of peace-offerings were due from me, and so on.*1 Therefore came I forth to meet thee, and so on.*2 I have decked with coverlets, and so on.*5 I have perfumed my bed, and so on.** Come, let us take our fill of love, and so on.*5 For my husband is not at home, and so on.*6 The bag of money, and so on.*1 With her much fair speech she causeth him to yield. With the blandishment of her lips she enticeth him away.*8 The outcome of all this is a warning against the pursuit of bodily pleasures and desires. Accordingly he [Solomon] likens matter, which is the cause of all these bodily pleasures, to a harlot who is also a married woman. In fact | his entire book is based on this allegory. And we shall explain in various chap¬ ters of this Treatise his wisdom in likening matter to a married harlot, and we shall explain how49 he concluded this book of his with a eulogy of the woman who is not a harlot but confines herself to attending to the welfare of her household and husband.50 For all the hindrances keeping man from his ultimate perfection, every deficiency affecting him and every disobe¬ dience, come to him from his matter alone, as we shall explain in this Treatise. This is the proposition that can be understood from this parable 38. The omitted words are: her feet abide not in her house.
39. The omitted words are: and lieth in wait at every corner.
40. The omitted words are: and kissed him, and with impudent face she said unto him.
41. The omitted words are: this day have I paid my vows.
42. The omitted words are: diligently to seek thy face, and I have found thee.
43. The omitted words are: my bed, with striped cloths of the yarn of Egypt.
44. The omitted words are: with myrrh, aloes and cinnamon.
45* The omitted words are: until the morning >■ let us solace ourselves with loves.
46. The omitted words are: he is gone a long journey.
47. The omitted words are: he has taken with him, and will come home at the full moon.
48. Prov. 7:6—21.
4g. A literal translation; perhaps the sense requires “why.” go. Literally: the state of her husband.
The Guide of the Perplexed I [86 as a whole. I mean that man should not follow his bestial nature;51 I mean his matter, for the proximate matter of man is identical with the proximate matter of the other living beings.52 And as I have explained this to you and disclosed the secret of this parable, you should not hope [to find some signification corresponding to every subject occurring in the parable]53 so that you could say: what can be submitted for the words, Sacrifices of peace- offerings were due from me; this day have I paid my vows? What subject is indicated by the words, I have decked my couch with coverlets? And what subject is added to this general proposition by the words, For my hus¬ band is not at home? The same holds good for the other details in this chapter. For all of them only figure in the consistent development of the parable’s external meaning, the circumstances described in it being of a kind typical for adulterers. Also the spoken words and other such details are of a kind typical of words spoken among adulterers. Understand this well from what I have said for it is a great and important principle with regard to matters that I wish to explain.
When, therefore, you find that in some chapter of this Treatise I have explained the meaning of a parable and have drawn your attention to the general proposition signified by it, you should not inquire into all the details occurring in the parable, nor should you wish to | find significations corres¬ ponding to them. For doing so would lead you into one of two ways: either into turning aside from the parable’s intended subject, or into assuming an obligation to interpret things not susceptible of interpretation and that have not been inserted with a view to interpretation. The assumption of such an obligation would result in extravagant fantasies such as are enter¬ tained and written about in our time by most of the sects of the world, since each of these sects desires to find certain significations for words whose author in no wise had in mind the significations wished by them. Your pur¬ pose, rather, should always be to know, regarding most parables, the whole that was intended to be known. In some matters it will suffice you to gather from my remarks that a given story is a parable, even if we explain nothing more; for once you know it is a parable, it will immediately become clear to you what it is a parable of. My remarking that it is a parable will be like someone’s removing a screen from between the eye and a visible thing.
51. Literally: his bestiality. 52. Or: the other animals.
53. The words enclosed in brackets appear in Ibn Tibbon’s Hebrew translation, but not in the printed Arabic text. There is little doubt that in this case Ibn Tibbon’s text is more correct.
The Guide of the Perplexed I 9a 1 INSTRUCTION WITH RESPECT TO THIS TREATISE If you wish to grasp the totality of what this Treatise contains, so that no¬ thing of it will escape you, then you must connect its chapters one with another; and when reading a given chapter, your intention must be not only to understand the totality of the subject of that chapter, but also to grasp each word that occurs in it in the course of the speech, even if that word does not belong to the intention of the chapter. For the diction of this Treatise has not been chosen at haphazard,54 but with great exactness and exceeding precision, and with care to avoid failing to explain any obscure point. And nothing has been mentioned out of its place, save with a view to explaining some matter in its proper place. You therefore should not let your fantasies elaborate on what is said here, for that would hurt me and be of no use to yourself. You ought rather to learn everything | that ought to be learned and constantly study this Treatise. For it then will elucidate for you most of the obscurities of the Law that appear as difficult to every intelligent man. I adjure — by God, may He be exalted! — every reader of this Treatise of mine not to comment upon a single word of it and not to explain to another anything in it save that which has been explained and commented upon in the words of the famous Sages of our Law who pre¬ ceded me. But whatever he understands from this Treatise of those things that have not been said by any of our famous Sages other than myself should not be explained to another; nor should he hasten to refute me, for that which he understood me to say might be contrary to my intention. He thus would harm me in return for my having wanted to benefit him and would repay evil for good. 5 5 All into whose hands it falls should consider it well; and if it slakes his thirst, though it be on only one point from among the many that are obscure,56 he should thank God and be content with what he has understood. If, on the other hand, he finds nothing in this Treatise that might be of use to him in any respect, he should think of it as not having been composed at all. If anything in it, according to his way of thinking, appears to be in some way harmful, he should interpret it, even if in a far¬ fetched way, in order to pass a favorable judgment.51 For as we are enjoined 54. Literally: the speech does not fall as it may happen.
55. Cf. Ps. 38:21.
56. Literally: though it were only in a certain matter from among the complex of what is difficult.
57. Cf. Mishnah, Aboth, I 6.
1 6 The Guide of the Perplexed I [ gb to act in this way toward our vulgar ones, all the more should this be so with respect to our erudite ones and Sages of our Law who are trying to help us to the truth as they apprehend it. I know that, among men generally, every beginner will derive benefit from some of the chapters of this Treatise, though he lacks even an inkling of what is involved in speculation. A perfect man, on the other hand, devoted to Law and, as I have mentioned, perplexed, will benefit from all its chapters. How greatly will he rejoice in them and how pleasant will it be to hear them! But those who are confused and whose brains have been polluted by false opinions and misleading ways deemed by them to be | true sciences, and who hold themselves to be men of speculation without having any knowledge of anything that can truly be called science,58 those will flee from many of its chapters. Indeed, these chapters will be very difficult for them to bear because they cannot apprehend their meaning and also because they would be led to recognize the falseness of the counterfeit money in their hands — their treasure and fortune held ready for future calamities. God, may He be exalted, knows that I have never ceased to be exceedingly apprehensive about setting down those things that I wish to set down in this Treatise. For they are concealed things 5 none of them has been set down in any book — written in the religious community59 in these times of Exile60 — the books composed in these times being in our hands. How then can I now innovate and set them down? However, I have relied on two premises, the one being [the Sages’] saying in a similar case, It is time to do something for the Lord, and so onf1 the second being their saying, Let all thy acts be for the sake of Heaven 62 Upon these two premises have I relied when setting down what I have composed in some of the chapters of this Treatise.
To sum up: lam the man who when the concern pressed him and his way was straitened and he could find no other device by which to teach a demonstrated truth other than by giving satisfaction to a single virtuous man while displeasing ten thousand ignoramuses — I am he who prefers to address that single man by himself, and I do not heed the blame of those many creatures. For I claim to liberate that virtuous one from that into 58. In this phrase the same Arabic term is translated by two words: “knowledge” and “science.”
59. Meaning the Jewish community. 60. The Hebrew word galuth is used.
61. The verse continues as follows: for they have infringed Thy Law. Ps. 119:126; cf. B.T., Berakhoth, 63.
62. Mishnah, Aboth, II 17.
loo] The Guide of the Perplexed I ij which he has sunk, and I shall guide him in his perplexity until he becomes perfect and he finds rest.
INTRODUCTION One of seven causes should account for the contradictory or contrary state¬ ments to be found in any book or compilation.
The first cause. The author | has collected the remarks of various people with differing opinions, but has omitted citing his authorities and has not attributed each remark to the one who said it. Contradictory or contrary statements can be found in such compilations because one of the two propositions is the opinion of one individual while the other proposition is the opinion of another individual.
The second cause. The author of a particular book has adopted a certain opinion that he later rejects; both his original and later65 statements are retained in the book.
The third cause. Not all the statements in question are to be taken in their external sense; some are to be taken in their external sense, while some others are parables and hence have an inner content. Alternatively, two apparently contradictory propositions may both be parables and when taken in their external sense may contradict, or be contrary to, one another.
The fourth cause. There is a proviso that, because of a certain necessity, has not been explicitly stated in its proper place; or the two subjects may differ, but one of them has not been explained in its proper place, so that a contradiction appears to have been said, whereas there is no contra¬ diction.
The fifth cause arises from the necessity of teaching and making some¬ one understand. For there may be a certain obscure matter that is difficult to conceive. One has to mention it or to take it as a premise in explaining something that is easy to conceive and that by rights ought to be taught 63. Literally: his first and his second.
1 8 The Guide of the Perplexed I [106 before the former, since one always begins with what is easier. The teacher, accordingly, will have to be lax and, using any means that occur to him or gross speculation, will try to make that first matter somehow understood. He will not undertake to state the matter as it truly is in exact terms, but rather will leave it so in accord with the listener’s imagination that the latter will understand only what he now wants him to understand. After¬ wards, in the appropriate place, that obscure matter is stated in exact terms and explained as it truly is.
The sixth cause. | The contradiction is concealed and becomes evident only after many premises. The greater the number of premises needed to make the contradiction evident, the more concealed it is. It thus may escape the author, who thinks there is no contradiction between his two original propositions. But if each proposition is considered separately — a true premise being joined to it and the necessary conclusion drawn — and this is done to every conclusion — a true premise being joined to it and the necessary conclusion drawn —, after many syllogisms the outcome of the matter will be that the two final conclusions are contradictory or contrary to each other. That is the kind of thing that escapes the attention of scholars who write books. If, however, the two original propositions are evidently contradictory, but the author has simply forgotten the first when writing down the second in another part64, of his compilation, this is a very great weakness, and that man should not be reckoned among those whose speeches deserve consideration.
The seventh cause. In speaking about very obscure matters it is neces¬ sary to conceal some parts and to disclose others. Sometimes in the case of certain dicta this necessity requires that the discussion proceed on the basis of a certain premise, whereas in another place necessity requires that the discussion proceed on the basis of another premise contradicting the first one. In such cases the vulgar must in no way be aware of the contradiction; the author accordingly uses some device to conceal it by all means.
The contradictions that are to be found in the Mishnah and the Baraithoth are due to the first cause. Thus you will find that they con¬ stantly ask: Does not the beginning \of the passage ] constitute an objection against its end? In such cases the answer is: The beginning is the opinion of a certain rabbi and the end that of another rabbi. You likewise will find that 64. Literally: place.
i lb ] The Guide of the Perplexed I iy they say: Rabbi [ Judah ha- Nasi] agreed with the opinion of a certain rabbi in this one | matter and therefore cited it anonymously. In that other matter he agreed with the opinion of that other rabbi and therefore cited it anony¬ mously. You often will find them also saying: Who is the author of this anonymous passage? Such and such rabbi. Who is the author of that passage of the Mishnah? Such and such rabbi. Such cases are innumerable. The contradictions or divergences to be found in the Talmud are due to the first cause and to the second. Thus you find them constantly saying: In this matter he agreed with this rabbi and in that with another rabbi. They like¬ wise say: He agreed with him on one point and disagreed on another. They also say: [The two statements are made by] two Amor aim who disagree as to the opinion of a certain rabbi. All contradictions of this kind are due to the first cause. Contradictions due to the second cause are referred to when they say: Rab abandoned this opinion. Raba abandoned that opinion. In such cases an inquiry is made as to which of the two statements is the later one. This is similar to their saying: In the first recension [of the Talmud] by Rabbi Ashi, he said one thing, and in the second another. That some passages in every prophetic book, when taken in their external sense, appear to contradict or to be contrary to one another is due to the third cause and to the fourth. And it was with this in view that this entire introduction was written. You already know how often [the Sages], may their memory be blessed, say: One verse says this and another verse says that. They straight¬ way establish that there is an apparent contradiction. Thereupon they ex¬ plain that a proviso is lacking in the statement of the subject or that the two texts have different subjects. Thus they say: Solomon, is it not enough for you that your words contradict those of your father? They also contradict themselves, and so on.65 Cases of this are frequent in the sayings of the Sages, may their memory be blessed; however, most of the prophetic statements they refer to concern commandments or precepts regarding conduct. We, on the other hand, | propose to draw attention to verses that are apparently contradictory with regard to opinions and beliefs. Part of this will be explained in some of the chapters of this Treatise, for this subject too belongs to the mysteries of the Torah. Whether contradictions due to the seventh cause are to be found in the books of the prophets is a matter for speculative study and investigation. Statements about this should not be a matter of conjecture. As for the divergences occurring in the books of the philosophers, or rather of those who know the truth, they are due to the fifth cause. On 65. B.T., Shabbath, 50a.
20 The Guide of the Perplexed I [12a the other hand, the contradictions occurring in most of the books of authors and commentators other than those we have mentioned are due to the sixth cause. Likewise in the Midrashim and the Haggadah there is to be found great contradiction due to this cause. That is why the Sages have said: No questions should be asked about difficulties in the Haggadah. There are also to be found therein contradictions due to the seventh cause. Divergences that are to be found in this Treatise are due to the fifth cause and the seventh. Know this, grasp its true meaning, and remember it very well so as not to become perplexed by some of its chapters.
And after these introductory remarks, I shall begin to mention the terms whose true meaning, as intended in every passage according to its context, must be indicated. This, then, will be a key permitting one to enter places the gates to which were locked. And when these gates are opened and these places are entered into, the souls will find rest therein, the eyes will be delighted, and the bodies will be eased of their toil and of their labor. | Open ye the gates, that the righteous nation that keepeth faithfulness may enter in 1 CHAPTER 1 Image [selem\ and likeness [ demuth ]. People have thought that in the Hebrew language image denotes the shape and configuration of a thing. This supposition led them to the pure doctrine of the corporeality of God, on account of His saying: Let us make man in our image, after our likeness,2 For they thought that God has a man’s form, I mean his shape and con¬ figuration. The pure doctrine of the corporeality of God was a necessary consequence to be accepted by them. They accordingly believed in it and deemed that if they abandoned this belief, they would give the lie to the biblical text; that they would even make the deity to be nothing at all unless they thought that God was a body provided with a face and a hand, like them in shape and configuration. However, He is, in their view, bigger and more resplendent than they themselves, and the matter of which He is composed is not flesh and blood. As they see it, this is as far as one can go in establishing the separateness of God from other things. Now with respect to that which ought to be said in order to refute the doctrine of the cor¬ poreality of God and to establish His real unity — which can have no true reality unless one disproves His corporeality — you shall know the demon¬ stration of all of this from this Treatise. However, here, in this chapter, only an indication is given with a view to elucidating the meaning of image and likeness.
Now I say that in the Hebrew language the proper term designating the form that is well known among the multitude, namely, that form which is the shape and configuration of a thing, is to?ar. Thus Scripture says: beautiful in form [td’ar] | and beautiful in appearance? What form [tomato] is he of?? As the form [to^ar] of the children of a king.5 This term is i. Isa. 26:2. 2. Gen. 1:26. 3. Gen. 39:6. 4. I Sam. 28:14. 5- Judg. 8:18.
also applied to an artificial form; thus: He marketh its form [ yetd’arehu ] with a line, and he marketh its form [ yetaharehu ] with a compass.6 Those terms7 are never applied to the deity, may He be exalted; far and remote may this thought be from us. The term image, on the other hand, is applied to the natural form, I mean to the notion in virtue of which a thing is constituted as a substance and becomes what it is. It is t1 9 true reality of the thing in so far as the latter is that particular being. In man that notion is that from which human apprehension derives. It is on account of this intellectual apprehension that it is said of man: In the image of God created He him6 For this reason also, it is said: Thou contemnest their image.6 For contempt has for its object the soul, which is the specific form, not the shape and configuration of the parts of the body. I assert also that the reason why idols are called images lies in the fact that what was sought in them was the notion that was deemed to subsist in them, and not their shape and configuration. I assert similarly with regard to the scriptural expression: images of your emerods! 0 For what was intended by them was the notion of warding off the harm caused by the emerods, and not the shape of the emerods. If, however, there should be no doubt concerning the expressions the images of your emerods and images being used in order to denote shape and configuration, it would follow that image is an equivocal or amphibolous term applied to the specific form and also to the artificial form and to what is analogous to the two in the shapes and configurations of the natural bodies. That which was meant in the scriptural dictum, let us make man in our imaged was the specific form, which is intellectual apprehension, not the shape and configuration. We have explained to you the difference between image and form, and have explained the meaning of image.