has with regard to it the rank that the heart has with regard to the beings endowed with hearts — and this even though there are in the world many inanimate bodies that are at rest.
Accordingly it behooves you to represent to yourself in this fashion the whole of this sphere as one living individual in motion and possessing a soul. For this way of representing the matter to oneself is most necessary or most useful for the demonstration that the deity is one, as shall be made clear. By means of this representation it will also be made clear that the One has created one being. For just as it is impossible that the limbs of a man should exist separately while being truly the part of a man — I mean to say that the liver should exist separately or the heart should exist separately or the flesh should exist separately— so is it impossible that the parts of the world should exist, in this permanent existence | with which our discourse is concerned, without one another in such a way that light would exist without the earth or the earth without the heaven6 or the heaven without the earth. And just as in this human individual there is a force that connects 5. Or: force.
6. The Arabic term sama: is used here, and not the term falak, which in other passages of this chapter has been translated by “heaven.”
188 The Guide of the Perplexed 1-72 [1016 the parts of his body one with the other, that governs them, provides every part of the body with what is needed for the safeguard of its well-being, and wards off from it that which harms — namely, the force of which the physicians have clearly spoken and which they have designated as the force governing the body of living beings and have frequently named “nature” 5 so there subsists in the world as a whole a force that connects its portions one with the other, safeguards its various species from perishing, safeguards also the individuals belonging to its species for the time for which it is possible to safeguard them, and also safeguards some of the individuals of the world.7 As to this force, there is speculation whether or not it subsists through the intermediary of heaven. Furthermore, in the body of a human individual there are things that are intended: the purpose of some of them — for instance, that of the organs of nutrition — being the continued existence of the individual; that of others — for instance, that of the organs of pro¬ creation— the continued existence of the species; while that of others again — of the hands and the eyes for instance — is related to the needs to which he is compelled in his nutrition and suchlike matters and other things that are not intended for themselves but are connected with, and consequent upon, the composition of the parts of the body, that particular composition being necessary for the achievement of the form in question as it is, so that it should carry out the intended actions. Accordingly, the fact that certain things are intended has as a consequence other things, as for instance the hair and the color of the body, because of the necessity inherent in matter. For this reason the state of these latter things does not follow an orderly arrangement; some of them are frequently lacking, and the dif¬ ferences between the various individuals with respect to their superiority or inferiority in these things are very great, which is not the case with regard to the parts of the body. For you do not find an individual who has a liver | that is ten times as big as the liver of another individual, but you do find a man lacking a beard or hair on certain parts of his body or who has a beard that is ten or twenty times as big as the beard of another individual. In fact this occurs in the majority of cases belonging to this category; I mean differences due to superiority or inferiority as regards hair or color. Now similarly in being as a whole, there are species whose generation is intended, stable, and subsisting according to an orderly arrangement, and between which there are only small differences to the extent of an accident that may have befallen that particular species with regard to its quality and quantity; and there are species that are not intended, but are consequent upon the 7. Probably such individuals as the heavenly bodies are meant.
1020 ] The Guide of the Perplexed 1-72 189 nature of universal generation and corruption — for instance, the various species of worms that are engendered from dung and the various species of living beings that are engendered in fruit when it is putrefying and those that are engendered from the putrefaction of moistures and the worms engendered in the intestines and other things of that kind. Generally- speaking, it seems to me that every living being that has not the faculty of procreating its like belongs to this group, and for this reason you will not find that they keep to an orderly arrangement even though they cannot but exist, just as is the case for different colors and for different species of hair in human individuals.
And just as in man there are bodies constituting species, the individuals of which are stable as the fundamental parts of the body, and other bodies having continued existence in this species, not in the individual; so are there in being as a whole stable bodies having continued existence as individuals, namely, the fifth body in all its parts, and bodies having continued existence as a species, such as the elements and what is composed of them.
And just as the forces of man that necessitate his generation and con¬ tinued existence for the time in which he continues to exist are identical with those necessitating his corruption and passing-away, so are the causes of generation in the whole world of generation and corruption identical with those of corruption. To take an example: | if it were possible that the four faculties that are to be found in the body of every being that nourishes itself— namely, the attractive faculty, the retentive faculty, the digestive faculty, and the repellent faculty — be like the intellectual faculties and not act except as is proper, in the time in which it is proper, and in the measure in which it is proper, man would be preserved from many very great afflictions and from a number of diseases. However, as this is impossible and these faculties carry out natural activities without reflection and discern¬ ment and do not apprehend in any respect the activities they carry out, it follows necessarily that grave disease and affliction occur because of them, even though these faculties are at the same time the instrument through which living beings are produced and have a continued existence during the time in which they have it.
This can be made clear as follows. If, to take an example, the attractive faculty would draw to the human body only things that are suitable in every respect and only to the extent needed, man would be preserved from many diseases and afflictions. But as this is not so, and it draws to the body any matter that happens to belong to the genus it attracts even if that iyo The Guide of the Perplexed 1-72 [ 1026 matter diverges slightly from the norm in its quantity and quality, it follows necessarily that it draws to the body matter that is warmer or colder, coarser or finer, than is needed, or more of it than is needed. Consequently the veins are plugged up with this matter, sclerosis and putrefaction occur, the quality of the humors is corrupted and their quantity changed; where¬ upon diseases appear such as scab, itch, and warts, or great afflictions such as cancerous growths, elephantiasis, and canker, so that the form of one or several parts of the body is corrupted.
This is the case also with regard to the other four faculties in question. And this is also the case with regard to all that exists as a whole. For the thing that necessitates the generation of what is generated and the per¬ manence of its existence | for some time is the mixing of the elements through the heavenly forces that move them and pervade them. And this is the very cause of the occurrence of causes of damage in that which exists — such as torrents, harmful rains, snow, hail, tempestuous winds, thunder, lightning, and the putrefaction of the air — or of the occurrence of causes that are very destructive and may bring about the annihilation of one or several lands or of a whole geographical zone — such causes are the sinking of land, earthquakes, hurricanes, and water overflowing from the seas and the depths.
Know that it was not because of all that we have mentioned in com¬ paring the world as a whole to a human individual that it has been said about man that he is a small world. For this whole comparison can be con¬ sistently applied to every individual animal that has perfect limbs; but you never hear that one of the ancients8 has said that an ass or a horse is a small world. This has been said only about man. This is because of that which is a proprium of man only, namely, the rational faculty — I mean the intellect, which is the hylic intellect; something that is not to be found in any of the species of living beings other than man. This can be explained as follows. None of the individual animals requires for its continued existence reflec¬ tion, perspicacity, and governance of conduct. For it goes about and runs in accordance with its nature, eating what it finds from among the things suitable to it, inhabiting any place to which it has happened to come, and copulating with any female it finds during its heat, if it has a period of heat. Consequently the individual remains in existence during the time in which it exists,9 and the existence of the species continues; such an indi¬ vidual does not require in any respect another individual belonging to its species to help and sustain it by making for it things j that it does not make 8. Literally: first. 9. Literally: remains in existence.
1036] The Guide of the Perplexed I • 72 iqi itself. As for man, and only man, let us suppose the case of an individual belonging to the human species that existed alone, had lost the governance of its conduct, and had become like the beasts. Such an individual would perish immediately; he could not last even one day except by accident — I mean if he should happen to find something he might feed on. For the foods through which he exists require the application of some art and a lengthy management that cannot be made perfect except through thought and perspicacity, as well as with the help of many tools and many individuals, every one of whom devotes himself to one single occupation. For this reason one is needed who would rule them and hold them together so that their society would be orderly and have continued existence in order that the various individuals should help one another. Similarly the precautions against heat in the hot season and against cold in the cold season and the finding of protection against the rains, the snow, and the blowing of winds, require arrangements for many preparations, none of which can be per¬ fect ed except through thought and perspicacity. Because of this one finds in man the rational faculty in virtue of which he thinks, exerts his pers¬ picacity, works, and prepares by means of various arts his food, his habita¬ tion, and his clothing. Through it he rules all the parts of his body in such a way that the ruling part acts in the way it does and the ruled part is governed the way it is ruled. Because of this a human individual who, according to a supposition you might make, would be deprived of this faculty and left only with the animal faculties, would perish and be destroyed immediately. This faculty is very noble indeed, being the noblest of the faculties of the living beings. It is also very secret, and its true reality cannot be understood at the first attempt of common opinion, as one can understand the other natural faculties.
In the same way there exists in being something that rules it a9 a whole and puts into motion its first principal part10 granting it the power of putting into motion, in virtue of which this part governs the things that are other than itself. | And if one supposed that this thing had passed into nothingness, it would have to be supposed that the existence of this sphere as a whole, that of its principal and that of its subordinate parts, had also passed into nothingness. For it is in virtue of this thing that the existence of the sphere and of every part of it endures. This thing is the deity, may its name be exalted. It is only with a view to this that it is said of man alone that he is a small world, inasmuch as there subsists in him a certain prin¬ ciple that governs the whole of him. And because of this, God, may He be 10. The Arabic term used here has been translated elsewhere “part of the body.”
ig2 The Guide of the Perplexed 1-72 [ 104 a exalted, is called in our language the life of the world. Thus it is said: And swore by the living of the world.11 Know that in this comparison that we have established between the world as a whole and a human individual, there is a discrepancy with respect to what we have mentioned only with regard to three points. The first is this. The ruling part of every living being possessing a heart is profited by the ruled parts; the profit deriving from the latter accrues to it so as to be useful to it. There is nothing like this in the universal being. For to no being, the governance of which overflows or confers a force, does any profit accrue in any respect from that which is ruled by it. For its giving the gifts it gives is like the giving of gifts on the parts of a generous and superior man who does it because of the nobility of his nature and the excellence of his disposition, not because of a hope for a reward: this is to become like to the deity, may His name be exalted.
The second point is this. The heart of every living being possessing a heart is in its middle; thus the other ruled parts surround it so that the utility deriving from them should extend to it wholly in that it is protected and safeguarded by them in such a way that harm coming from outside cannot rapidly reach it. Now in the world as a whole, the position is inverse. Its nobler part surrounds its inferior part, for the former is secure against receiving an influence from what is other than itself. And even if it were capable of receiving such an influence, it would not find outside itself another body that could influence it. Accordingly, this part occasions an overflow into what is inside it, whereas no influence reaches it in any respect nor any force deriving from | bodies other than itself. With regard to this point there is also a certain similarity. For in the living being, a part is less noble than other parts to the extent to which it is far off from the ruling part, whereas other parts are nearer to the latter. The position in the world as a whole is the same. For whenever the bodies are near the center, they grow dimmer and their substance coarser, and their motion becomes more difficult, while their light and transparency disappear because of their distance from the noble, luminous, transparent, moving, subtle, and simple body — I mean heaven. On the other hand, whenever bodies are near the latter, they acquire some of these characteristics because of their proximity to it and achieve a certain superiority over what is lower than they.
The third point is this. The rational faculty is a faculty subsisting in a body and is not separable from it, whereas God, may He be exalted, is not a faculty subsisting in the body of the world, but is separate from all parts of 11. Dan. 13:7.
1046] The Guide of the Perplexed 1-72 the world. For the governance and the providence of Him, may He be exalted, accompany the world as a whole in such a way that the manner and true reality of this accompaniment are hidden from us; the faculties of human beings are inadequate to understand this. On the one hand, there is a demonstration of His separateness, may He be exalted, from the world and of His being free from it; and on the other hand, there is a demonstra¬ tion that the influence of His governance and providence12 in every part of the world, however small and contemptible, exists. May He whose per¬ fection has dazzled us be glorified!
Know that it behooved us to compare the relation obtaining between God, may He be exalted, and the world to that obtaining between the acquired intellect and man; this intellect is not a faculty in the body but is truly separate from the organic body and overflows toward it. We should have compared, on the other hand, the rational faculty to the intellects of the heavens, which are in bodies. However, the case of the intellects of the heavens, that of the existence of separate intellects, and that of the represen¬ tation of the acquired intellect, which is also separate, are matters open to speculation | and research. The proofs with regard to them are well hidden though correct; many doubts arise with regard to them; the critic may well find in them objects for his criticism and the caviller objects for his cavilling. We have preferred that at first you should represent to yourself that which exists in clear form. As far as this form is concerned, no one could be unaware of any point we have mentioned by way of simple13 assertion unless he belongs to one of two kinds of individuals: that which is ignorant of matters that are clear — just as one who is not a geometrician is unaware of mathematical matters that have been demonstrated — or that which prefers to hold fast to a certain opinion that the individual in question had adopted previously so that he deceives himself. On the other hand, he who wishes to engage in true speculation should study until the correctness of everything we have narrated becomes clear to him. He then will know that this is the form of this permanent existent whose existence is beyond doubt and dispute. If he wishes to accept this as true from one to whom all the demonstrations of the demonstrated points are known, let him accept it in this way and build on it syllogisms and proofs. If, however, he prefers not to rely on authority — not even with regard to these first principles — he should study, and in due course of time it will become clear to him that 13. mursal, a term that sometimes means “absolute.” Maimonides means to say that in this chapter his expose was not accompanied by proofs.
matters are just as they have been stated. Lo this, we have searched it, so it is, hear it, and know thou it.1* After this simplifying presentation, I shall begin to mention what we have promised to mention and to explain.
CHAPTER 73 The common premises laid down by the Mutakallimun, in spite of the diversity of their opinions and the multiplicity of their methods, that are necessary with a view to establishing what they wish to establish with regard to the four problems in question, are twelve in number. I shall mention them to you and afterwards I shall explain to you the meaning of each of these premises and what necessarily follows from it.1 | The first premise: establishing the existence of atoms.2 The second premise: the existence of a vacuum. The third premise: time is composed of instants.3 The fourth premise: that substance4 cannot be exempt from a certain number of accidents. The fifth premise: that the accidents that I shall describe subsist in the atom, which cannot be exempt from them. The sixth premise: that an accident does not endure for two units of time. The seventh premise: that the status of the habitus is that of their privation and that the former and the latter are all of them existent accidents requiring an efficient cause. The eighth premise: that nothing except substances and accidents subsist in all that exists — they mean to say, in all the created things — and that natural form is likewise an accident. The ninth premise: that accidents do not support one another.5 The tenth premise: that the possibility of a thing should not be considered in establishing a correspon¬ dence between that which exists and mental representation. The eleventh premise: that with regard to the impossibility of the infinite, there is no difference between the latter’s existing in actu, in potentia, or by accident 5 I mean to say that there is no difference between the simultaneous existence 14. Job 5:27.
1. On Maimonides’ exposition of the views of the Mutakallimun, cf. Translator’s Introduc¬ tion.
2. The term used can also mean “separate substance.” 3. Literally: “now’s.”
4. The term can also mean “atom.” However, comparison with Maimonides’ exposition of this premise farther on in this chapter shows that the translation “substance” seems indicated.
5. This means that an accident cannot inhere in another accident.
iog£] The Guide of the Perplexed I • 75 of those infinite things, or their being supposed to be made up of what exists and of what has ceased to exist, which is infinity by accident. They say that all these kinds of infinity are impossible. The twelfth premise consists in their saying that the senses commit mistakes and that many of the objects of their apprehension elude them and for this reason their judgment should not be appealed to and they should not be regarded in absolute fashion as principles of demonstration. After having thus enumera¬ ted these common premises, I shall start to explain their meanings and to explain what necessarily follows from every one of them. | THE FIRST PREMISE Its meaning is that they thought that the world as a whole — I mean to say every body in it — is composed of very small particles that, because of their subtlety, are not subject to division. The individual particle does not possess quantity in any respect. However, when several are aggregated, their aggregate possesses quantity and has thus become a body. If two particles are aggregated together, then according to the statements of some of them, every particle has in that case become a body, so that there are two bodies. All these particles are alike and similar to one another, there being no difference between them in any respect whatever. And, as they say, it is impossible that a body should exist in any respect except it be composed of these particles, which are alike in such a way that they are adjacent to one another. In this way, according to them, generation consists in aggregation, and corruption in separation. They do not, however, call this process corruption, but say that there are the following generations: aggregation and separation, motion and rest. They also say that these particles are not restricted in their existence,6 as was believed by Epicurus and others who affirmed the existence of such particles 5 for they say that God, may He be exalted, creates these substances constantly whenever He wishes, and that their annihilation is likewise possible. Further on, I shall let you hear their opinions regarding the annihilation of substance.
THE SECOND PREMISE The assertion concerning the vacuum. The men concerned with the roots [the Mutakallimun] believe likewise that vacuum exists and that it is a certain space7 or spaces in which there is nothing at all, being accordingly 6. Perhaps in point of numbers. Ibn Tibbon’s translation of the phrase could be rendered: do not exist from of old.
7. When used by philosophers, the word bucd often means “dimension.”
iy6 The Guide of the Perplexed 1-75 [ 106a empty of all bodies, devoid of all substance. This premise is necessary for them because of their belief in the first premise. For if the world were full of the particles in question, how | can a thing in motion move? It would also be impossible to represent to oneself that bodies can penetrate one another. Now there can be no aggregation and no separation of these particles except through their motions. Accordingly they must of necessity resort to the affirmation of vacuum so that it should be possible for these particles to aggregate and to separate and so that it should be possible for a moving thing to move in this vacuum in which there is no body and none of these substances.8 THE THIRD PREMISE This is their saying that time is composed of instants, by which they mean that there are many units of time that, because of the shortness of their duration, are not divisible. This premise is also necessary for them because of the first premise. For they undoubtedly had seen Aristotle’s demonstrations, by means of which he has demonstrated that distance, time, and locomotion are all three of them equal as far as existence is concerned. I mean to say that their relation to one another is the same and that when one of them is divided the other two are likewise divided and in the same proportion. Accordingly they knew necessarily that if time were continuous and infinitely divisible, it would follow of necessity that the particles that they had supposed to be indivisible would also be divisible. Similarly if distance were supposed to be continuous, it would follow of necessity that the instant that had been supposed to be indivisible would be divisible — just as Aristotle had made it clear in the “Akroasis.” Therefore they supposed that distance is not continuous, but composed of parts at which divisibility comes to an end, and that likewise the division of time ends with the instants that are not divisible. For example, an hour j consists of sixty minutes, a minute of sixty seconds, and a second of sixty thirds. And thus this division of time ends up accordingly with parts constituting, for instance, tenths or something even briefer, which cannot in any respect be separated in their turn into parts and are not subject to division, just as extension is not subject to it. Consequently, time becomes endowed with position and order. In fact they have no knowledge at all of the true reality of time. And this is only appropriate with regard to them; for seeing that the cleverest philosophers were confused by the question of time and that some of them did not understand its notion — so that Galen could say that