We have already spoken of the fact that every form in which -an angel is seen, exists in the vision of prophecy. You will find that there are prophets who see the angels as if they were human individuals. Thus it is said: And, lo, three men.50 Others from among them see [an angel] as if he were a man causing terror and amazement. Thus it is said: And his countenance was like the countenance of the angel of God, very terrible.31 Again others from among them see [an angelj as fire. Thus: And the angel of the Lord appeared unto him in the heart of fire?'1 There33 it is said: To Abraham whose power was great?* they appeared in the likeness of men; to Lot whose power was weak55 they appeared in the likeness of angels. This is a great prophetic secret. However, the discussion of prophecy will occur later on when it is proper. There36 it is further said: Before they accomplish their mission, they are called men; when they have accomplished it, they are endued with the angelic state. Consider how clear it is in every respect that the notion of an angel is that of a certain act, and that every vision of an angel occurs only in a vision of prophecy and according to the state of him who apprehends.
There is then nothing in what Aristotle for his part has said about this subject that is not in agreement with the Law. However, a point on which he disagrees with us in all this is constituted by his belief that all these things are eternal and that they proceed necessarily from Him, may He be exalted, in that way. For we ourselves believe that all this has been created, and that God has created the separate intellects and has put in the sphere the force of desire toward them, and that it was He who created the intellects and the spheres and put in them the governing forces. As to this we do disagree with him. Later on you shall hear his opinion and the opinion of the true Law regarding the world’s having been produced in time. | 33. I.e., in Genesis Rabbah, L. 34. Literally: beautiful. 35. Literally: bad.
36. I.e., in Genesis Rabbah, L. The passage, as quoted by Maimonides, differs slightly from the one found in the text of Genesis Rabbah known to us.
CHAPTER 7 We have explained the equivocality of the term angel and that it includes the intellects, the spheres, and the elements, inasmuch as all of them carry out orders.1 Do not think, however, that the spheres or the intellects have the same rank as the other2 corporeal forces, which are a thing of nature and do not apprehend their acts.3 For the spheres and the intellects apprehend their acts, choose freely, and govern, but in a way that is not like free choice and our governance, which deal wholly with things that are produced anew. The Torah has by its letter expressed several notions that drew our attention to this. Thus the angel says to Lot: For I cannot do anything, and so on;* and again in order to deliver him, he says to him: Behold, I have accepted thee concerning this thing also.5 Scripture also says: Take heed of him, and hearken unto his voice; Be not rebellious against him; for he will not pardon your transgression; for My name is in him.6 All this indicates to you that they7 apprehend their acts and have will and free choice with regard to the governance com¬ mitted to them, just as we have will with regard to that which from the foundation of our existence has been committed to us and given over to our power. Only we sometimes do things that are more defective than other things, and our governance and our action are preceded by privations; whereas the intellects and the spheres are not like that, but always do that which is good, and only that which is good is with them, as we shall explain in several chapters; and all that they have exists always in perfection and in actu since they have come into existence. | i. In the singular in the text.
2. Or: all the (sa’ir). In classical Arabic the word means “the other” or “all the other.”
However, in later Arabic it may mean “all.”
3. In the singular in the text.
7. I.e., the spheres and the intellects.
CHAPTER 8 One of the ancient opinions that are 1 widespread among the philosophers and the general run of people consists in the belief that the motion of the spheres produces very fearful and mighty sounds. Their proof for this belief consisted in their saying that when the small bodies that are with us move with a rapid motion, a great clatter and a disturbing boom are heard to proceed from them. In consequence this should be all the more the case with respect to the bodies of the sun, the moon, and the stars, having regard to their size and velocity. The entire sect of Pythagoras believes that these bodies emit pleasant sounds having — though mighty — the same proportion to each other as that obtaining in musical melodies. And it was their task to give the reasons why we do not hear these fearful and mighty sounds. This opinion also is generally known in our religious community. Do you not see that the Sages describe the might of the sound produced by the sun when it every day proceeds on its way in the sphere?2 The same affirmation with regard to the whole necessarily follows.
Aristotle, however, does not accept this5 and makes it clear that the heavenly bodies produce no sound. You will find this statement in his book “On the Heaven”; from the passage there you will understand this. You should not find it blameworthy that the opinion of Aristotle disagrees with that of the Sages, may their memory be blessed, as to this point. For this opinion, I mean to say the one according to which the heavenly bodies produce sounds, is consequent upon the belief in a fixed sphere and in stars that return.* You know, on the other hand, that in these astronomical matters they preferred the opinion of the sages of the nations of the world to their own. For they explicitly say: The sages of the nations of the world have vanquished.5 And this is correct. For everyone who argues in specula¬ tive matters does this according to the conclusions to which he was led by his speculation. Hence the conclusion whose demonstration is correct is believed, j l. Or: were. 2. Cf. B.T., Yoma, 20b; Genesis Rabbah, VI.
3. Cf. De Caelo ii. 9.29(^12 ff. 4. B.T., Pesahim, 94b. 5. Cf. B.T., Pesahim, 94b.
CHAPTER 9 We have already made it clear to you that in Aristotle’s time the number of the spheres had not been accurately established and that those who in our time count nine spheres, only count as one a globe that includes several spheres, as is clear to whoever has studied the science of astronomy. For this reason you also should not regard as blameworthy this dictum of some1 of the Sages, may their memory be blessed:2 There are two firmaments $ for it is said: Behold, unto the Lord thy God belongeth the heaven, and the heaven of heavens? For he who says this counts the whole globe of the stars — I mean the spheres in which there are stars — as one globe, and again counts the globe of the all-encompassing sphere in which there is no star as the second globe. Consequently, he says: There are two firmaments.
Now I shall first set forth for your benefit a preface needed for the purpose that I have in view in this chapter. This preface is as follows. Know that regarding the spheres of Venus and Mercury there exists a difference of opinion among the early mathematicians about whether they are above the sun or below the sun.+ For there is no demonstration proving to us what the position of these two spheres 5 is. The doctrine of all the ancients was that the spheres of Venus and Mercury are above the sun. Know this and keep it entirely present in your mind. Then Ptolemy came and decided in favor of the opinion that they were both below the sun, saying that the greatest likeness to a natural order would be manifested in the sun’s being in the middle with three planets6 above and three below. Then came latter-day groups of people in Andalusia7 who became very proficient in mathematics and explained, conforming to Ptolemy’s premises, that Venus and Mercury were above the sun. In fact, | Ibn Aflah of Sevilla,8 whose son I have met, has written a celebrated book about this. Thereupon the excellent philosopher Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sahgh,9 under the guidance of one of whose pupils I have read texts, reflected on this notion and showed various ways of argumentation — transcribed by us from him — by means of 4. On the theories concerned, cf. Translator’s Introduction.
5. Maimonides does not use here and in the following sentence the usual astronomical term falak occurring in the preceding sentence, but the term kurra which likewise signifies “sphere” or “globe.” Sometimes the term kurra, as.used by Maimonides, comprehends several spheres.
6. Literally: stars. 7. Or: Spain. The Arabic word is Andalus.
8. Jabir Ibn Aflah, an astonomer of the twelfth century, is meant.
9. Cf. I 74, n. 10.
20b J The Guide of the Perplexed II • 10 269 which the opinion that Venus and Mercury are above the sun may be shown to be improbable. However, the argument set forth by Abu Bakr is one purporting to show that this opinion is improbable, not one purporting to disprove in entirely. Whether this matter be so or not, all the early mathe¬ maticians put Venus and Mercury above the sun. For this reason they counted five spheres:10 namely, the sphere of the moon, which undoubtedly is contiguous with us; that of the sun, which is necessarily above it; that of the five planets 5 that of the fixed stars; and the all-encompassing sphere11 in which there are no stars. Accordingly, the number of informed spheres,12 I mean to say the spheres with forms, in which there are stars — for as is generally known from their books, the ancients called the stars forms — is four; namely, the sphere of the fixed stars, that of the five planets, that of the sun, and that of the moon; while above all of them there is one empty sphere13 in which there is no star.
Now this number is for me a very important basis for a notion that has occurred to me and that I have not seen explicitly stated by any philos¬ opher. I found, however, in the dicta of the philosophers and the discourse of the Sages indications that drew my attention to it. I shall accordingly mention them and explain the notion in the following chapter. | CHAPTER 10 It is known and generally recognized in all the books of the philosophers speaking of governance that the governance of this lower world — I mean the world of generation and corruption — is said to be brought about through the forces overflowing from the spheres.1 We have mentioned this several times, and you will find likewise that the Sages say:2 There is not a single herb below that has not a “mazzal”5 in the firmament that beats upon it and tells it to grow. For it is said: Knowest thou the ordinances of 10. kurra. Cf. n. 5, this chap. 11. falak. Cf. n. 5, this chap.
12. kurra. 15. falak.
1. The Arabic sentence is grammatically incorrect. It may be interpreted as saying that what is generally known is not the governance of this lower world, etc., but that all philosophers say these things about it.
2. Genesis Rabbah, X.
3. The most frequent meaning of this Hebrew word is “a constellation in the zodiac”; but as Maimonides points out in the next sentence, it may also mean “star.”
2"]o The Guide of the Perplexed II • 10 [21a the heavens? Canst thou establish the dominion thereof in the earth?* Now they also call a star: mazzal. You will find this clearly in the beginning of j Bereshith Rabbah in the same passage. For they say: There is a “ mazzal ” that completes its motion in thirty days, and there is a “mazzal” that com¬ pletes its motion in thirty years.5 By means of this dictum6 they have made it clear that even individuals subject to generation have forces of the stars that are specially assigned to them. And though all the forces of the sphere pervade all the existents, yet there also exists a force specially assigned to a certain species — as is the case with regard to the forces of a single body — inasmuch as all that exists is, as we have mentioned, a single individual.
The philosophers have likewise mentioned that the moon has an additional force specially assigned to the element of water. The proof for this consists in the increase of the seas and the rivers due to the increase of the moon and in their decrease due to the latter’s decrease, as well as in the fact that the flow of the seas comes with the advance of the moon and its ebb with its retrogression — I mean to say with its ascending and descending in the several quarters of the sphere, as is clear and manifest to whoever has observed this. As | for the fact that the rays of the sun set in motion the element of fire, it is very manifest, as you may see from the fact that heat going together with the sun interpenetrates that which exists and that cold becomes preponderant when the sun gets farther from a place on the earth or is hidden in relation to it. This is too clear to be dwelt upon at length. In consequence, when I knew this, it occurred to me that while the four spheres7 having stars have forces that overflow from them as a whole toward all the things subject to generation — these spheres being the causes of the latter — each sphere is also specially assigned to one of the four elements, the sphere being the principle from which the forces of that particular element exclusively derive and that in virtue of its motion causes the element to move in the motion of generation.8 Thus the sphere of the moon moves the water, the sphere of the sun the fire, while the sphere of the other planets moves the air. It is because of the multiplicity of the motions of these planets 9 — their differences, their retrogressions, their direct progressions, and their stations — that the shapes of the air, its differences, and its rapid contractions and expansions are multiple. The 6. The reference is to the first passage from Genesis Rabbah quoted in this chapter.
7. kitrra is used, and not the more usual astronomical term falak; cf. preceding chap., n. 5.
8. According to Aristotelian terminology, the process of generation is a motion, g. Or: of this sphere. Literally: of their motions.
21 b] The Guide of the Perplexed II • 10 271 sphere of the fixed stars moves the earth. Perhaps the earth is so sluggish in moving to receive the action being brought to bear upon it and in under¬ going combinations because of the slowness of the fixed stars in their motion. [The Sages] gave an indication of the fixed stars1' being specially assigned to the earth in their saying that the number of the species of plants is the same as the number of the individual stars belonging to the totality of stars.
It is likewise possible that the arrangement of the universe should be as follows. The spheres are four 5 the elements moved by the spheres are four; and the forces proceeding from the spheres into that which exists in general are four, as we have made clear. Similarly the causes of every motion belonging to the sphere are four: namely, the shape of the sphere — I mean to say its sphericity;10 its soul; and its intellect through which it has conceptions, as we have explained; and the | separate intellect, which is its beloved. Understand this well. The explanation of this is as follows. Were the shape of the sphere not that particular shape, it would not be at all possible for it to be moved in a circular continuous motion. For a continuity of a motion combined with a return to the same places is only possible in circular motion. For in the case of rectilinear motion, the motion is not continuous even if the moving object should return and cross the same distance several times. For between two motions in opposite directions there is an interval of rest, as has been demonstrated in the appropriate place. Accordingly it is clear that for the continuity of a motion in which there are returns over the same distance it is necessary that the moving object should move in a circular motion. Now only an object endowed with a soul has motion. Accordingly the existence of the soul follows necessarily. There must also indubitably be something inciting to motion, namely, a conceiving and a desire for that which has been conceived, as we have mentioned. This can only come about there through an intellect, for it cannot consist in the avoidance of what disagrees with one or the seeking of what agrees with one. Thus there must indubitably be a certain being of which a conception is made and for which there is desire, as we have explained.
There are thus four causes of the motion of the sphere and four sorts of general forces proceeding from it toward us. These are, as we have explained, the force causing the generation of the minerals, the force of the vegetative soul, the force of the animal soul, and the force of the rational soul. Now if you consider the activities of these forces, you will find that 10. The Arabic term for “sphere” used in this sentence is falak. The term for “sphericity” derives from another root and is kurriyya. Cf. preceding chap., n. 5.
they are of two species. For they cause either the generation of all that is generated or the preservation of what is generated — I mean to say the preservation of its species in a permanent way and the preservation of its individuals for a certain duration. This is the meaning of “nature,” which is said to be wise, having governance, caring for the bringing into existence of animals by means of an art similar to that of a craftsman, and also caring for their preservation and permanence through the bringing into existence of formative forces, which are the cause of the existence of living beings, and | nutritive forces, which are the cause of their lasting for whatever duration is possible. What is intended hereby is the divine decree11 from which these two activities derive through the intermediary of the sphere.
This number four is wondrous and should be an object of reflection. They said in Midrash Rabbi Tanhuma:12 How many steps were in the ladder? Four — which refers to the dictum: And behold a ladder set up on the earth.™ And in all the Midrashim 1+ it is mentioned and repeated that there are four camps of angels.™ However, in some manuscripts I have seen the text: How many steps were in the ladder? Seven. But all the manu¬ scripts and all the Midrashim 16 agree that the angels of God, whom [Jacob] saw ascending and descending were only four and not any other number — two ascending and two descending— and that the four gathered together upon one step of the ladder, all four being in one row — namely, the two who ascend and the two who descend. They even learned from this that the breadth of the ladder seen in the vision of prophecy was equal to the dimension of the world plus one third. For the breadth of one angel in the vision of prophecy is equal to the dimension of one third of the world according to the dictum: And his body was like tarshish.11 Accordingly the breadth of the four is equal to that of the world plus one third. In his parables, Zechariah — when describing that there came out four chariots from between the two mountains, and the mountains were mountains of brass™ — says in interpretation of this: these are the four airs 19 of the heavens which go forth after presenting themselves before the Lord of all 11. Or: the divine thing.
12. The passage does not occur in the text of Midrash Tanhuma known to us. Cf. Yalqut Reubeni, MaPakh, gg.
15. Gen. 28:12. 14. In the text: Midrashoth.
15. Cf. Chapters of Rabbi Eliezer, IV; Numbers Rabbah, II.
16. In the text: Midrashoth. 17. Dan. 10:6. 18. Zech. 6:1.
lg. ruhoth. According to Maimonides, the word ruah has as its primary signification “air.” Ordinarily it is translated “wind” or “spirit.”
22 6] The Guide of the Perplexed II • 11 27 j the earth?0 They are accordingly the cause of everything that comes to pass in time. In regard to his mentioning brass and likewise the dictum burnished brass, 21 perceive in them a certain equivocality. You shall hear an indication regarding this. As for their dictum that an angel is equal in breadth to a third of the world — namely, their dictum in Bereshith Rabbah, which reads textually: That the angel is the third part of the world'12 — it is | very clear. And we have explained it in our great compilation on the legalistic study of the Law.23 For all created things are divided into three parts: the separate intellects, which are the angels 5 the second, the bodies of the spheres 5 the third, first matter — I mean the bodies subject to constant change, which are beneath the sphere.
In this way will he who wants to understand the prophetic riddles understand them. And he will awaken from the sleep of negligence, be saved from the sea of ignorance, and rise up toward the high ones. He, however, who is pleased to swim in the seas of his ignorance and comes down lower and lower,2* has no need to weary his body and his heart. When he ceases moving, he goes down to what is lowest in nature. Understand all that has been mentioned and reflect on it.
CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 11 Know with regard to the astronomical matters mentioned that if an exclusively mathematical-minded man reads and understands them, he will think that they form a cogent demonstration that the form and number of the spheres is as stated. Now things are not like this, and this is not what is sought in the science of astronomy. Some of these matters are indeed founded on the demonstration that they are that way. Thus it has been demonstrated that the path of the sun is inclined against the equator. About this there is no doubt. But there has been no demonstration whether the sun has an eccentric sphere or an epicycle. Now the master of astronomy does not mind this, for the object of that science is to suppose as a hypothesis an arrangement1 that renders it possible for the motion of the star to be 23. Cf. Mishneh Torah, Yesodei ha-Torah, II 3. 24.. An allusion to Deut. 28:43.
1. haj-’a. Literally: shape. The word also means “astronomy” and is used in this sense by Maimonides in the present chapter.
uniform2 and circular with no acceleration or deceleration or change in it and to have j the inferences necessarily following from the assumption of that motion agree with what is observed. At the same time the astronomer seeks, as much as possible, to diminish motions and the number of the spheres. For if we assume, for instance, that we suppose as a hypothesis an arrangement by means of which the observations regarding the motions of one particular star can be accounted for through the assumption of three spheres,3 and another arrangement by means of which the same observa¬ tions are accounted for through the assumption of four spheres,4 it is pre¬ ferable for us to rely on the arrangement postulating the lesser number of motions. For this reason we have chosen in the case of the sun the hypothesis of eccentricity, as Ptolemy mentions, rather than that of an epicycle. In accordance with this purpose and in view of the fact that we have appre¬ hended that the motions of all the fixed stars constitute one immutable motion in which the relative positions of these stars do not change, we are confident that all of them are situated in one sphere. Now it is not impossible that every fixed star is situated in a sphere of its own, while the motions of these stars are one and the same — all of these spheres being situated on the same poles. In that case the number of the intellects would be equal to that of the stars, as is said: Is there any number of His armies?s — he means because of their multiplicity. For the intellects, the heavenly bodies, and all forces are all together His armies. However, there is no doubt that their species may be numbered.
Thus even on this hypothesis, our ordering of the universe in which we counted the sphere6 of the fixed stars as one sphere7 — just as we have counted the five spheres8 of the planets, in spite of the multiplicity of their spheres,9 as one sphere10 — would not be disarranged. For, as you have understood, our purpose is to count all the forces that we have appre¬ hended in a general way in that which exists without troubling to give a precise account of the true reality of the intellects and the spheres. For the whole intended purpose is to show that the existents that are below the Creator, may He be exalted, | are divided into three parts: one of them being constituted by the separate intellects $ the second, by the bodies of the 2. Literally: one.
3. Literally: with which the seen of the motions of this star is true in virtue of three spheres.
4. Literally: with which the selfsame is true in virtue of four spheres.
5. Job 25:3. 6. The word used is falak. Cf. II 9, n. 5.
7. The word used is kurra. Cf. II 9, n. 5.
8. falak. 9. falak. 10. kurra.
24 a] The Guide of the Perplexed II • 11 2jj