beneficence includes two notions, one of them consisting in the exercise of beneficence toward one who has no right at all to claim this from you, and the other consisting in the exercise of beneficence toward one who deserves it, but in a greater measure than he deserves it. In most cases the prophetic books use the word hesed in the sense of practicing beneficence toward one who has no right at all to claim this from you. Therefore every benefit that comes from Him, may He be exalted, is called hesed. Thus it says: I will make mention of the loving-kindnesses \hasdei~\ of the Lord.2 Hence this reality as a whole— I mean that He, may He be exalted, has brought it into being — is hesed. Thus it says: The world is built up in loving¬ kindness \]iesed~\;3 the meaning of which is: the building-up of the world is loving-kindness. And He, may He be exalted, says in an enumeration of His attributes: And abundant in loving-kindness.* The word sedaqah is derived from sedeq, which means justice; justice being the granting to everyone who has a right to something, that which he has a right to and giving to every being that which corresponds to his merits. But in the books of the prophets, fulfilling the duties imposed upon you with regard to others is not called sedaqah in conformity with the first sense. For if you give a hired man his wages or pay a debt, this is not called sedaqah. On the other hand, the fulfilling of duties with regard to others imposed upon you on account of moral virtue, such as remedying the injuries of all those who are injured, is called sedaqah. Therefore it says with reference to the returning | of a pledge:5 And it shall be sedaqah unto you.5 For when you walk in the way of the moral virtues, you do justice unto your rational soul, giving her the due that is her right. And because every moral virtue is called sedaqah, it says: And he believed in the Lord, and it was accounted to him as sedaqah.1 I refer to the virtue of faith. This applies likewise to his dictum, may he be exalted: And it shall be sedaqah unto us if we take care to observe, and so on.8 As for the word mishpat, it means judgment concerning what ought to be done to one who is judged, whether in the way of conferring a benefit or of punishment.
Thus it has been summarized that hesed is applied to beneficence taken absolutely; sedaqah, to every good action performed by you because of a moral virtue with which you perfect your soul; and mishpat sometimes has as its consequence punishment and sometimes the conferring of a benefit.
2. Isa. 63:7. 3. Ps. 89:3. In the English Bible: For ever is mercy built.
8. Deut, 6:25.
6^2 The Guide of the Perplexed III • 54 [ 132a When refuting the doctrine of divine attributes, we have already explained that every attribute by which God is described in the books of the prophets is an attribute of action.9 Accordingly He is described as hasid [ one possessing loving-kindness] 10 because He has brought the all into being; as saddiq [ righteous ]“ because of His mercy toward the weak — I refer to the govern¬ ance of the living being by means of its forces; and as Judge 12 because of the occurrence in the world of relative good things and of relative great calamities, necessitated by judgment that is consequent upon wisdom.13 The Torah uses all three terms: Shall the Judge of all the earth;1* Saddiq [righteous] and upright is He;15 And abundant in hesed [loving-kindness].16 In interpreting the meaning of these terms, it was our purpose to prepare the way for the chapter that we shall bring after this one.
CHAPTER 54 CHAPTER 54 The term wisdom [ hokhmah ] is applied in Hebrew in four senses. | It is applied to the apprehension of true realities, which have for their end the apprehension of Him, may He be exalted. It says: But wisdom, where shall it be found? and so on.1 It says: If thou seek her as silver, and so onJ This usage is frequent. The term is applied to acquiring arts, whatever the art might be: And every wise-hearted among you;5 And all the women that were wise-hearted.* It is applied to acquiring moral virtues: And teach his elders wisdom;5 Is wisdom with aged men?6 — for the thing that is ac¬ quired through mere old age is a disposition to achieve moral virtues. It is applied to the aptitude for stratagems and ruses: Come, let us deal wisely with them J According to this meaning it says: And fetched thence a wise woman,9 meaning thereby that she had an aptitude for stratagems and ruses. In this sense it is said: They are wise to do evil.9 It is possible that the 9. Cf. I 53 and 54.
10. A word deriving from the same verbal root as hesed.
11. A word deriving from the same verbal root as sedaqah.
12. Shophet, a word deriving from the same verbal root as mishpat.
13. The Arabic word for “judgment” ( hukm ) derives from the same verbal root as the Arabic word for “wisdom” ( hikma ).
9. Jer. 4:22.
1326] The Guide of the Perplexed III ■ 54 meaning of wisdom in Hebrew indicates aptitude for stratagems and the application of thought in such a way that the stratagems and ruses may be used in achieving either rational or moral virtues, or in achieving skill in a practical art, or in working evil and wickedness. It has accordingly become plain that the term wise can be applied to one possessing the rational virtues, to one possessing the moral virtues, to everyone skilled in a practical art, and to one possessing ruses in working evil and wickedness. According to this explanation, one who knows the whole of the Law in its true reality is called wise in two respects: in respect of the rational virtues comprised in the Law and in respect of the moral virtues included in it. But since the rational matter in the Law is received through tradition and is not demons¬ trated by the methods of speculation, the knowledge of the Law came to be set up in the books of the prophets and the sayings of the Sages as one separate species and wisdom,10 in an unrestricted sense, as another species. It is through this wisdom, in an unrestricted sense, that | the rational matter that we receive from the Law through tradition, is demonstrated. All the texts that you find in the [scriptural] books that extol wisdom and speak of its wonder11 and of the rarity of those who acquire it — Not many are wise;12 But wisdom, where shall it be found? and so on,-15 and many other texts of this kind — treat of that wisdom which teaches us to demonstrate the opinions of the Torah. This is also frequent in the sayings of the Sages, may their memory he blessed; I mean that they set up the knowledge of the Torah as one separate species and wisdom as another species. They, may their memory be blessed, say of Moses our Master: He was father in wisdom, father in the Torah, father among the prophets.11' And with reference to its dictum concerning Solomon, And he was wiser than all men,15 they say: A Tot [wiser] than Moses;16 for the dictum, than all men, means: than his contemporaries. Therefore you will find that it mentions Heman and Khalkol and Darda, the sons of Mahol 11 who were celebrated then as wise men. The Sages, may their memory be blessed, mention likewise that man is required first to obtain knowledge of the Torah, then to obtain wisdom, then to know what is incumbent upon him with regard to the legal science of the Law — I mean the drawing of inferences concerning what one ought to do. And this should be the order observed: The opinions in question should first be known as 10. It is not quite clear whether Maimonides uses here the Hebrew word hokhmah or the Arabic word hikma, spelled in the same way. The Arabic word also connotes “philo¬ sophy.” The Hebrew word may also have this connotation, and if Maimonides used it here, he undoubtedly had this connotation in mind.
6)4 The Guide of the Perplexed III • 54 [ 133a being received through tradition; then they should be demonstrated; then the actions through which one’s way of life may be ennobled, should be precisely defined. This is what they, may their memory be blessed, literally say regarding man’s being required to give an account with respect to these three matters in this order. They say: When man comes to judgment, he is first asked: Have you fixed certain seasons for the study of the Torah? Have you ratiocinated concerning wisdom? Have you inferred one thing from another?i8 It has thus become clear to you that, according to them, the science of the Torah is one species and wisdom is a different species, being the verification of the opinions of the Torah through correct speculation. After we have made all these preliminary remarks, hear what we shall say: The ancient | and the modern philosophers have made it clear that the perfections to be found in man consist of four species. The first and the most defective, but with a view to which the people of the earth spend their lives,19 is the perfection of possessions — that is, of what belongs to the individual in the manner of money, garments, tools, slaves, land, and other things of this kind. A man’s being a great king also belongs to this species of perfection. Between this perfection and the individual himself there is no union whatever; there is only a certain relation, and most of the pleasure taken in the relation is purely imaginary. I refer to one’s saying: This is my house; this is my slave; this money is mine; these are my soldiers. For if he considers his own individual self, he will find that all this is outside his self and that each of these possessions subsists as it is by itself. Therefore when the relation referred to has been abolished, there is no difference between an individual who has been a great king and the most contemptible of men, though nothing may have changed in any of the things that were attributed to him. The philosophers have explained that the endeavor and the efforts directed by man toward this kind of perfection are nothing but an effort with a view to something purely imaginary, to a thing that has no permanence. And even if these possessions should remain with him permanently during the whole of his life, he would by no means thereby achieve perfection in his self.
The second species has a greater connection than the first with the individual’s self, being the perfection of the bodily constitution and shape — I refer to that individual’s temperament being most harmonious, his limbs well proportioned and strong as they ought to be. Neither should this species of perfection be taken as an end, for it is a corporeal perfection and does not belong to man qua man, but qua animal; for man has this in common with 18. B.T., Shabbath, 31a. 19. Or: mutually destroy each other.
i54 a ] The Guide of the Perplexed III • 54 635 the lowest animals. Moreover even if the strength of a human individual reached its greatest | maximum,20 it would not attain the strength of a strong mule, and still less the strength of a lion or an elephant. The end of this perfection consists, as we have mentioned, in man’s transporting a heavy burden or breaking a thick bone and in other things of this kind, from which no great utility for the body may be derived. Utility for the soul is absent from this species of perfection.
The third species is a perfection that to a greater extent than the second species subsists in the individual’s self. This is the perfection of the moral virtues. It consists in the individual’s moral habits having attained their ultimate excellence.21 Most of the commandments serve no other end than the attainment of this species of perfection. But this species of per¬ fection is likewise a preparation for something else and not an end in itself. For all moral habits are concerned with what occurs between a human individual and someone else. This perfection regarding moral habits is, as it were, only the disposition to be useful to people; consequently it is an instrument for someone else. For if you suppose a human individual is alone, acting on no one, you will find that all his moral virtues are in vain and without employment and unneeded, and that they do not perfect the individual in anything; for he only needs them and they again become useful to him in regard to someone else.
The fourth species is the true human perfection; it consists in the acquisition of the rational virtues — I refer to the conception of intelligibles, which teach true opinions concerning the divine things. This is in true reality the ultimate end; this is what gives the individual true perfection, a perfection belonging to him alone; and it gives him permanent perdur- ance; through it man is man. If you consider each of the three perfections mentioned before, you will find that they pertain to others than you, not to you, even though, according to the generally accepted opinion, they inevitably | pertain both to you and to others. This ultimate perfection, however, pertains to you alone, no one else being associated in it with you in any way: They shall be only thine own, and so on,22 Therefore you ought to desire to achieve this thing, which will remain permanently with you, and not weary and trouble yourself for the sake of others, O you who neglect your own soul so that its whiteness has turned into blackness through the 20. Literally: finality and end.
31. The Arabic word fadila, translated “excellence,” is the singular of the word translated in the preceding sentence as “virtues.”
22. Prov. 5:17.
6)6 The Guide of the Perplexed III ■ 54 [ 1346 corporeal faculties having gained dominion over it — as is said in the beginning of the poetical parables that have been coined for these notions; it says: My mother's sons were incensed against me; they made me keeper of the vineyards; but mine own vineyard have I not kept.25 It says on this very same subject: Lest thou give thy splendor unto others, and thy years unto the cruel,2+ The prophets too have explained to us and interpreted to us the self¬ same notions — just as the philosophers have interpreted them — clearly stating to us that neither the perfection of possession nor the perfection of health nor the perfection of moral habits is a perfection of which one should be proud or that one should desire; the perfection of w'hich one should be proud and that one should desire is knowledge of Him, may He be exalted, which is the true science. Jeremiah says concerning these four perfections: Thus saith the Lord: Let not the wise man glory in his wisdom, neither let the mighty man glory in his might, let not the rich man glory in his riches; but let him that glorieth glory in this, that he understandeth and knoweth Me.25 Consider how he mentioned them according to the order given them in the opinion of the multitude. For the greatest perfection in their opinion is that of the rich man in his riches, below him the mighty man in his might, and below him the wise man in his wisdom. [By the expression, “the wise man in his wisdom,”] he means him who possesses the moral virtues; for such an individual is also held in high esteem by the multitude, to whom the discourse in question is addressed. Therefore these perfections are arranged in this order. The Sages, may their memory ' be blessed, appre¬ hended from this verse the | very notions we have mentioned and have explicitly stated that which I have explained to you in this chapter: namely, that the term wisdom [hokhmah\, used in an unrestricted sense and regarded as the end, means in every place the apprehension of Him, may He be exalted; that the possession of the treasures acquired, and competed for, by man and thought to be perfection are not a perfection; and that similarly all the actions prescribed by the Law — I refer to the various species of worship and also the moral habits that are useful to all people in their mutual dealings — that all this is not to be compared with this ultimate end and does not equal it, being but preparations made for the sake of this end. Hear verbatim a text of theirs dealing with all these notions; it is a text in Bereshith Rabbah. It is said there: One scriptural dictum says: And all things desirable are not to be compared unto her.26 Another scriptural dictum says: And all things thou canst desire are not to be compared unto her.21 The 27. Prov. 3:15.
26. Prov. 8:11.
1 35^ ] The Guide of the Perplexed III -54 6^7 expression, things desirable, refers to commandments and good actions; while, things thou canst desire, refers to precious stone and pearls. Neither things desirable nor things thou canst desire are to be compared unto her, but let him that glorieth glory in this, that he under standeth and knoweth Me.26 Consider how concise is this saying, how perfect is he who said it, and how- he left out nothing of all that we have mentioned and that we have interpreted and led up to at length.
As we have mentioned this verse and the wondrous notions contained in it, and as we have mentioned the saying of the Sages, may their memory be blessed, about it, we will complete the exposition of what it includes. For when explaining in this verse the noblest ends, he does not limit them only to the apprehension of Him, may He be exalted. For if this were his purpose, he would have said: But let him that glorieth glory in this, that he under - standeth and knoweth Me, and have stopped there; or he would have said: that he understandeth and knoweth Me that I am One; or he would have said: that I have no figure, or that | there is none like Me, or something similar. But he says that one should glory in the apprehension of Myself and in the knowledge of My attributes, by which he means His actions, as we have made clear29 with reference to its dictum: Show me now Thy ways, and so on.30 In this verse*1 he makes it clear to us that those actions that ought to be known and imitated are loving-kindness, judgment, and righteous¬ ness. He adds another corroborative notion through saying, in the earth*1 — this being a pivot of the Law. For matters are not as the overbold opine who think that His providence, may He be exalted, terminates at the sphere of the moon and that the earth and that which is in it are neglected: The Lord hath forsaken the earth.** Rather is it as has been made clear to us by the Master of those who know: That the earth is the Lord's.** He means to say that His providence also extends over the earth in the way that corresponds to what the latter is, just as His providence extends over the heavens35 in the way that corresponds to what they are. This is what he says: That I am the Lord who exercise loving-kindness, judgment, and righteousness, in the earth.*6 Then he completes the notion by saying: For in these things I delight, saith the Lord.*1 He means that it is My purpose that there should come from you loving-kindness, righteousness, and judgment in the earth in the way we have explained38 with regard to the thirteen attributes-, namely, that the purpose should be assimilation to them and that this should be our way of life. Thus the end that he sets forth in this verse may be stated as follows: 28. Genesis Rabbah, XXXV in fine. 29. Cf. I 54. 30. Exod. 33:13.
35. In the singular in Arabic. 36. Jer. 9:23. 37. Jer. 9:23. 38. Cf. I 54, 638 The Guide of the Perplexed III • 54 [ 135ft It is clear that the perfection of man that may truly be gloried in is the one acquired by him who has achieved, in a measure corresponding to his capacity, apprehension of Him, may He be exalted, and who knows His providence extending over His creatures as manifested in the act of bringing them into being and in their governance as it is. The way of life of such an individual, after he has achieved this apprehension, will always have in view loving-kindness, righteousness, and judgment, through assimilation to His actions, may He be exalted, just as we have explained several times in this Treatise. | This is the extent of what I thought fit that we should set down in this Treatise 5 it is a part of what I consider very useful to those like you. I hope for you that through sufficient reflection you will grasp all the intentions I have included therein, with the help of God, may He be exalted 5 and that He will grant us and all [ the people of] Israel, being fellows, that which He has promised us: Then the eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the ears of the deaf shall be unstopped.39 The people that walked in darkness have seen a great lights they that dwelt in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined.+0 AMEN God is very near to everyone who calls, If he calls truly and has no distractions,• He is found by every seeker who searches for Him, If he marches toward Him and goes not astray.
* The Third Part HAS BEEN COMPLETED WITH THE HELP OF GOD AND WITH ITS COMPLETION THERE HAS BEEN COMPLETED THE GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED 39. Isa. 35:5.
40. Isa. 9:1.
GLOSSARY * Ability to act istita'a Accident carad Act, Actuality fid Admissibility tajwiz Affection inffal Affirmation (see Aver) tasdiq,■ ijab Agent ( see Efficient cause; Maker) fa'il Amphibolous mushakkak Analogy (see Reasoning; Syllogism) qiyas Aptitude (see Disposition) hay1 a Apprehend (see Grasp) adraka Apprehension idrak Artificer sanf Assert (see Establish) athbata Atom ( see Substance) jawhar, jawhar fard; juz? (literal meaning “part”) juz? Id yntajazza' u Attribute sifa Attribute, Affirmative; Attribute of affirmation sifat al-ljab Attribute, Essential sifa dhatiyya Attribute of negation sifat al-salb Attribute, negative sifa salbiyya Aver (see Affirmation) saddaqa Beginning (see Principle) mabda 3 Being (see Existence) wujud Belief i'tiqad Bringer of the nomos (see Legis¬ lator) wadic al-namus Center markaz Certainty; Certain knowledge yaqin Chapter fasi Character (see Moral qualiti es) khulq Characteristic (see Meaning; Notion) macna City madina Coming-into-being (see Creation in time; Generation) kaivn; huduth Command (see Matter; Order) amr Community; Religious community milla Composition tarkib Corporeality (doctrine of) jisma- niyya; tajsim Correlation iddfa Corruption (see Passing-away) fasad Created in time muhdath Creation in time (see Coming-into- being) huduth Definition hadd Deity Hah Demonstration burhan Derivative (see Figurative meaning) musta'dr Glossary 640 Disposition hay3 a; isticdad Disposition, natural jibilla Distance masafa Divine (see Metaphysical) ildhl Divine science cilm ildhl Eccentric sphere falak kharij al- markaz Efficient cause ( see Agent; Maker) fdcil Elite ( see Property) khassa End (final) ( see Finality) ghaya Epicycle falak tadwir Equivocal mushtarik Essence {see Quiddity) dhdt; ma- hiyya Establish; Establish the truth of {see Assert) athbata Eternal {see Pre-eternal) qadim Existence; That which exists {see Being) wujud Faculty {see Force; Potentiality) quwwa Faculty, rational quwwa natiqa Fantasy wahm Produce the fantasy {see Suggest to the estimative faculty) aw- hama Figurative meaning {see Derivative) 1st Far a Finality {see End) ghaya Force (see Faculty; Potentiality) quwwa Generation ( see Coming-into- BEINg) kawn Genus jins God allah Governance tadblr Grace lutf Graciousness, wily talattuf Grasp ( see Apprehend) adraka Guide dalala Habit; Habitus malaka Habit (with reference to the doctrines held by the Mutakallimun) cada Hidden ( see Inner; Internal) bat in Imagination khayal; takhayyul Imagining, vain khayal Individual shakhs Indwelling saklna Infidelity kufr Infinite md la nihaya lahu Inner content ( see Hidden; Internal meaning) batin Instant (“now”) an Intellect caql Intellect, acquired caql mustafdd Intellect, active caql fd'dl Intellectually cognized object (see Intelligible) mabqul Intellectually cognizing subject caqil Intelligible (see Intellectually cognized object) mdrqul Internal meaning ( see Hidden; Inner content) batin Law sharFa Legal compilation tcdllffiqh Legal science; Legalistic study fiqh Legislator ( see Bringer of the NOMOs) wadF al-namus Maker ( see Agent; Efficient cause) fdii Matter (1) shay 3; amr Matter (2) madda Meaning ( see Characteristic; Notion; Thing) mcdna Metaphysical (see Divine) ildhl Mind dhihn Mode hal Moral qualities (see Character) akhlaq Multitude jumhur Nation umma Glossary Nomos namus,■ sharfa namusiyya Nonbeing; Nonexistence (see Priva¬ tion) cadam Notion (see Characteristic; Mean¬ ing; Thing) nufna Oneness wahda; wahdaniyya Order ( see Command; Matter) amr Overflow fayd Parable mathal Part; Particle ( see Atom) juz’ Part of the body cadw Particularization takhsis Particularize ( see Proprium; Pro¬ vide) khassasa Passing-away ( see Corruption) fasad, f ana?
Perplexed ha?ir Place (see Space) makan Place, natural mawdic tabicl Potentiality ( see Faculty; Force) quwwa Pre-eternal qadim Premise; Primary proposition mu- qaddima Principle ( see Beginning) mabdaJ Privation ( see Nonbeing) cadam Property ( see Elite) khassa Prophet nabiyy Proprium, provide with khassasa Providence c indy a Quiddity ( see Essence) mahiyya Reasoning (see Analogy; Syllogism) qiyas Relation nisba Religion din Representation tasawwur Riddle laghz Sovereign sultan Space (see Place) makan; bu d