Glossary. 107 Jotde was the first to measure with accuracy the mechanical equivalent of heat (in 1856). Since 1860, the mechanical theory of heat haa been considered as one of the greatest conquests of science in the nineteenth century. Its applications both in science and industry are countless.
Mendiletf, Dmitri (1834-1907), a remarkable Russian chemist, beat known for his discovery of the "Periodic Law of Elements." It is kaowD that all the bodies which we find on the earth's surface, whether liviag or dead matter, are composed of some eighty or ninety different bodies, which cannot be decomposed, and therefore are named elements. These enter among themselves into an infinite number of combinations. The ehmenta, Mendeleeff discovered, if we write them down in the order of the increasing complexity of their molecules, can be disposed in a table containing eight vertical columns and twelve horizontal lines. If such a table is made, it appears that all the elements placed in each column will have some chemical properties in common; so also all the elements inscribed in each horizontal row — the energy of the chemical properties increasing in each row as you go from Column 1 to Column 8. This suggests the idea (1) that the molecule of each element is probably a complex system of still smaller molecules (or rather atoms) in continual movement round each other — like the planets Jupiter or Saturn, with their several moons; and (2) that in the structure of these systems there is a certain periodicity, i.e., a repetition of some scheme of structure.
This discovery has immensely helped the development of chemistry. Hia conception of the cosmical ether as matter, the atoms of which are in vibrations so rapid that they cannot be fixed and kept in more or less permanent chemical combinations, though yet less known, is equally important.
Mill, John Stuart (1806-1873), famous English economist and philo- sopher. One of the most eminent representatives of "empiricism," i.e., of research based on observation. In his "System of Logic" he has admirably developed the theory of the inductive method. Author of "Principles of Political Economy," "Essay on Liberty," and "Repre- sentative Government."
Moleschott, Jacob (1822-1893), a materialist physiologist of Dutch origin. "Wrote, in German, many works to popularise materialist philo- sophy; one of them, "The Cycle of Life" ("Ereislauf des Lebens"), had a wide renown.
Owen, Robert (1771-1858), with Fourier and Saint-Simon one of the three great founders of modern Socialism — especially of associated Trade Unionism and federated Co-operation. Exercised a deep influence upon his contemporaries in England, both among the working men and the intellectuals, inspiring both with higher ideals of equality, freedom, and justice. The severe prosecutions which were begun against his followers in 1831, after he had started the great Union of all trades — which was 108 Modern Science and Anarohiem.
intended to combine the workers of all the civilised countries, and was thus a precursor of the International Working Men's Association- compelled Owen and his associates to limit their activities to peaceful Co- operation and moderate Trade Unionism. His principal works were: "Outline of a Rational System," "The Book of the New Moral World," and " Revolution in the Mind and Practice of the Human Race "; but he issued countless smaller writings and papers, and created quite a school of English Socialists, unfortunately forgotten now.
Proudhon, Pierre (1809-1865), French Socialist, the most powerful critic of the capitalist system and the State, as well as the authoritarian systems of Communism and Socialism. About his own system of Mutualism, see the text of this book. Chief works: " What is Property?" "System of Economic Contradictions"; "Confessions of a Revolutionist"; "General Idea about the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century "; "On the Political Capacity of the Working Class "; etc.
Rieardo, David (1772-1823), an English economist of the school considered as "classical" by the Universities. He fully developed, after Adam Smith, the theory that the amount of necessary labour is the standard and measure of the exchange value of all marketable goods; and also a theory of ground rent, to which the Universities attribute a scientific value. His chief work was "On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" (1817).
Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1712>1778), French philosoper. A fore- runner of the Oreat Revolution, whose writings, together with those of Mably, greatly influenced most of those who stood foremost in the Revolution, especially in its Jacobinist wing. He preached the return to a simple and natural life, equality, democratic and republican institu- tions, and a sound education embodying a knowledge of both science and manual work; and he endeavoured to lay the foundations of a natural religion which might supersede Church Christianity. He has had an ardent follower in Leo Tolstoy. Chief works: "On the Origin of Inequality among Men," "Le Contrat Social," "Emile," "Le Vicaire Savoyard," "The New Heloise," and "Mea Confessions."
Saint-Simon (1760-1825), with Fourier and Robert Owsn one of the three great founders of nineteenth-century Socialism. He endeavoured to base his conclusions upon a solid study of the economic relations, such as they exist in society, and upon the laws of their development; and through that his teachings — " Saint-Simonism " — found a great number of followers, and inspired a great number of the best thinkers (Auguste Comte), historians (Augustin Thierry), economists (Sismondi), and industrial philanthropists of the nineteenth century. His practical conclusions were leading him to an association of Capital and Labour. All the leading theoretical principles of so-called "Scientific Socialism," or "Marxism," are but a further development of the thsoretical ideas advocated by the Saint-Simouists.
Glossary. 109 StheUing, Friedrich (1775-1854), a German philosopher of the period of reaction. Attempted to build up a system which would embody all Nature; but, partly from want of a knowledge of natural science, and partly from preconceived ideas, stranded in metaphysics.
Seguin, Marc (1786-1875), French engineer. Was the first to measurc- the mechanical equivalent of heat.
Shaman is the name given to sorcerers by the diflferent populations of Northern Asia. They are supposed to deal with the dark forces of Nature. By their incantations and dances they are supposed to conjure illness and all sorts of misfortunes.
Smith, Adam (1723-1790), English economist and philosopher; founder of Political Economy as a science based on observation and on the inductive methods, which he developed in his classical work, "The Wealth of Nations." In that work he considered wealth as the product of labour, and criticised the many obstacles which Governments at that time put in the way of the growth of industry and commerce — thus becoming the founder of the so-called "Liberal school" of Political Economy. In a far less known, very much boycotted, and yet very deep work, "The Theory of Moral Sentiments," he wrote a full theory of Ethics based on the common observations of mutual sympathy.
Spencer, Herbert (1820-1903), English philosopher who developed a full system of synthetic philosophy on a materialistic basis, embodied in the following works: "First Principles," "Principles of Biology," "Principles of Psychology," "Principles of Sociology," "Ethics." Also "The Man versus the State"; an excellent little work on Education; a polemics against Weismann upon the direct action of surroundings and natural selection; and so on. In his "Principles of Biology" he developed a full theory of evolution, based chiefly on the lines of Lamarck's " Transformism," i.e., on the direct action of the surround- ings modifying the organisms in the sense of adaptation to their surroundings ("direct adaptation"), — natural selection ("the indirect adaptation") only coming in to aid the preservation of the best adapted ("survival of the fittest"), and to give stability to the acquired adaptation.
Thierry, Augustin (1795-1856), a renowned French historian, who combined an admirable descriptive talent with a deep study and compre- hension of the primitive institutions of the so-called "barbarian " period. His "Letters on the History of France " give the best key to a compre- hension of this period, and of the subsequent period of independent city-republics in France. He also wrote a history of the Norman Conquest of England.
Vogt, Earl (1817-1895), Swiss naturalist and politician, professor of geology and zoology. Took part in the Revolution of 1848 in Germany. Author of several purely scientific works, and an excellent populariser. Materialist and foUovrer of Darwin after the appearance of "Origin of 110 Modem Science and Anarchism.
Species." His little work, "A Pitman's Faith and Science" ("Kohler- glaube und Wissenschaft") exercised a great influence during the natiiral science revival of 1856-62. Other works: "Zoological Letters," "Old and New from the Life of Animals and Men," "Lectures on Man," — probably none of them translated into English.
Wallace, Alfred Eussel (born 1822), English naturalist, who, contem- poraneously with Darwin, in 1857, developed the theory of evolution of species through natural selection in the struggle for life. His work, "Darwinism," is an admirable exposition of the subject, popularly written and thoroughly scientific. In his youth he came under the influence of Robert Owen's teachings, and is still in favour of land nationalisation.
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