Yamuna (Jumna), led beyond that river through the Country of the Panchalas, and reached the Ganges at Hastinapufa, where the ferry was* Thence it led over the Bamaganga and its eastern tributaries, then over the Gromati, and then in a southern direction along the Malini, beyond which it reached Ayodhya. la Bliarat's journey the following rivers are passed from west to east: Kutikoshtikd, Uttdnikd, KutiM, Kapivati, Gomati according to Schlegel, and Hiranyavatit Uttdrikd, Xutildy Kapivati, Gomati according to Gorresio. As these rivers are to be looked for on the east of the Ganges, the first must be the modern Koh, a small affluent of the Ramaganga, over Which the highway cannot have gone as it bends too far to the north. The tfttaiiika oi< Uttarika must be the Itamaganga, the Kutika or Kutila its eastern tributary Kosila, the Kapivati the next tributary which on the maps has different names, Crurra or above Kailas, 37 540 ADDITIONAL NOTES.
lower down Bliaigu. The Gomati (Goomtee) retains its old name. The Malini, mentioned only in the envoys' journey, must have been the western tributary- of the Sarayu now called ChukaV LASSEN'S Indische Alterthumskunde, Vol. II.
PAGE 183.
What Worlds await thee^ Queen, for this?
' Indian belief divided the universe into several worlds (lokdh). The three principal worlds were heaven, earth, and hell. But according to another division there wete seven: Bhurloka or the earth, Bhuvarloka or the space be- tween the earth and the sun, the seat of the Munis* Siddhas, &c., Svarloka or the heaven of Indra between the sun and the polar star, and the seventh Brahmaloka or the world of Brahma. Spirits which reached the last were.exempt from being born again*' GORRESIO.
PAGE 203.
When from a million herbs a blaze Of their own luminous glory plays.
This mention df lambent flames emitted by herbs at night may be com- pared with Lucan's description of a similar phenomenon in the Druidicai forest near Marseilles, (Pliarsalia, III. 420J.
Non ardentis fulgere incendia silvae.
Seneca, speaking of Argolis, (Thyestes, Act IV) y says:— Tota solet Micare flatnma silva, et excelsae trabes Thus also the bush at Horeb (Exod. II.) flamed, btit was not consumed. The Indian explanation of the phenomenon is, that the sun before he pets deposits his rays for the night with the deciduous plants. See Journal of R. As. S. Bengal. Vol. II. p. 339.
PAGE 219. We rank the Buddhist with the thief.
Schlegel says in his Preface:' LubriCo vestigio insistit V. Cl. iteefenius^ prof. Gottingensis, in libro suo de commerciis veterum poputorum (OPP. Vol. HIST. XII, pag. 129,) dum putat, ex mentione sectatorura Buddhae secundo libro Rameidos iniecta de tempore, quo totum carmen sit conditum, quicquam legitime concludi posse Sunt versus spurii, reiecti a Bengalis in sola commentatorum recensione leguntur. Buddhas quidem mille fere aiinis ante Christum natun vixit: sed post multa deiriumsecula, odiointernecivo inter Brachmanos et Buddhae sectatores orto, his denique ex India pttlsis, fingi potuit iniquissima criminatio, eos animi immortalitatem poenasque et praemia in vita f utura negare. Praeterea metrum, quo Cincinnati sunt hi versus, de quo metro inox disseram^ recentiorem aetatem arguit.. Poenitet me nunc mei consilii, quod non statjm ab initio^...eiecerim cuncta disticha diversis a sloco vulgari metris composita> Metra sunt duo: pariter ambo cons- tant quatuor hemistichiis inter se aequalibus, alterum undenarum syllabarum, alteruni duocleuar um, hunc in rnodum; ADDITIONAL NOTES. 541 Cuius generis versus inprimo et secuncjo Rameidos libro nusquam nisi ad finem capitum apposita inveniuntur, et huic loco unice sunt accommodata, quasi peroratio, lyricis numeris assurgens, quo magis canorae cadant olausulae: sicut musici in concentibus extremis omnium vocum instruinentorumque iotu f ortiore aures percellere amant. Igitur disticha ilia non ante divisionem per capita illatam addi potuerunt: hanc autem grammatiois deberi argumento est ipse recensionum dissensus, manifesto inde ortus, quod singuli editores in ea constituenda suo quisque iudicio usi sunt; praeterquam quod non credibile est, poetam artis suae peritum narrationem contmuam in membra tarn minuta dissecuisse. Porro discolor est dictio: magniloquentia affectatur, sed nimis turgida ilia atque effusa, nee sententiarumpondere satis suffulta. Denique nihil fere noyi affertur: ampli ficantur prius dicta, rarius aliquid e^ capite sequente anticipatur. Si quis ap« pendices hosce legendo trausiliat, sentiet slocum ultimum cum primo capitis proximi apte coagmentatum, nee sine vi quadam inde avulsum. Eiusmodi versus exhibet utraque recensio, sed inodo haec modo ilia plures paucioresve numero, et lectio interdum magnopere variat,' " The narrative of Rama's exile in the jungle is one of the most obscure portions of the Ramayana, inasmuch ^s it is difficult to discover any trace of the original tradition, or any illustration of actual life and manners, beyond the artificial life of self -mortification and selfdeuial said to have been led by the Brahman sages of olden time. At the same time, however, the story throws some light upon the significance of the poem, and upon the character in which the 3rahmanical author desired to represent Rama; and consequently it deserves! more serious consideration than the nature of the subject-matter woulci other- wise seem to imply, According to the Ramayana, the hero R-ama spent more than thirteen years of his exile in wandering amongst the different Brahmanical settlements, which appear to have been scattered over the country between the Ganges and the Godaveri; his wanderings extending from the hill of,Chitra-kiita in Bundel- kund, to the modern town of Nasik on the western side of India, near the source of the Godaveri river, and about seventy ^five miles to the north-west of Bombay, The appearance of these Brahmanical hermitages in the country far away to the south of the Raj of Kasala, seems to call for critical inquiry, Each hermitage is said to have belonged to some particular sage, who is famous in Brahmanical tradition. But whether the sages named were really contemporaries of Rama, op whether they could possibly have flourished at one and the same period, is open to serious question. It is of course impossible to fix with any degree of certainty the relative chronology of the several sages, who are said to have been visited by Rama; but still it seems tolerably clear that some belonged to an age far an- terior to that in which the Ramayana was composed, and probably to an age an- terior to that in which Rama existed as a real and living personage; whilst, at least, one sage is to be found who could only have existed in the age during which the Ramayana was produced in its present form. The main proofs of these inferences are as follows. An interval of many centuries seems to have elapsed between the composition of the Rig- Veda and that of the Ramayana; a conclusion 542 ADDITIONAL NOTES.
which has long been proved by the evidence of language, and is generally accepted by Sanskrit scholars. But three of the sages, said to have been contemporary with Rima, namely, Visyamitra, Atri and Agastya, are frequently mentioned in the hymns of the Eig-Veda; whilst Viilmiki, the sage dwelling at Chitra-kuta, is said to have been himself the composer of the Ramayana. Again, the sage Atri, whom Rama visited immediately after his departure from Chitra-kuta, appears in the genealogical list preserved in the lYlaha Bh&rata, as the progenitor of the Moon, and consequently as the first ancestor of the Lunar race: whilst his grand- son Buddha [ Budha ] is said to have married I1&, the daughter of Ikhsvaku who was himself the remote ancestor of the Solar race of Ayqdhyii, from whom R&ma was removed by many generations. These conclusions are not perhaps based upon absolute proof, because they are drawn from untrustworthy authorities; but still the chronological difficulties have been fully apprehended by the Pun- dits, and an attempt has been made to reconcile all contradictions by represent- ing the sages to have lived thousands of years, and to have often re-appeared upon earth in different ages widely removed from each other. Modern science refuses to accept such explanations; and consequently it is impossible to escape the con- clusion that if Valmiki composed the Ramayana in the form of Sanskrit in which it has been preserved, he could not have flourished in the same age as the sages who are named in the Rig -Veda." WHEELER'S History of India, Vol. II, 229.
PAGE 249. Ay,fl King Himalaya's Child.
Uma or Parvatf, was the daughter of Himalaya and Mena, She is the fceroine oi K^lidasa's Kumava-Sambhava or Birth of the War- God..
PAGE 2§0, Strong Kumbhaltarna slumbering deep In chains of never-endin l? Ivumhhakarna, the gigantic brother of the titanic Ravan, — named from the sjze of his ears which could contain a Kumbha or large water jar—had such an appetite that he used to consume six months' provisions in a single day. Brahma, to relieve the alarm of the world, which had b,egun to entertain serious apprehen- sions of being eaten up, decreed that the giant should sleep six months a^ a time and wake for only one day during which he might consume his six months' allow- ance without trespassing unduly on tfre reproc^uctive capabilities of the earth.'* Scenesjrow the fidmtiyqn, p. 1$3, 2nd Edit.
PAGE 257.
fdke &iva wli^en liu angry might Stayed Dahsha's sacrificial rite.
The following spirited version of this old story is from the pen of Mr. W. Waterfield; 4 '[This is a favorite subject of Hindu sculpture, especially on the temples of Shiva, such as the caves of Elephauta and Ellora. It, no doubt, is an allegory of the contest between the followers of SJiiva and the worshippers of the Ele- ments, who observed th.e old ritual of the Vedas; in which the name of Shiva is never mentioned.]
ADDITIONAL NOTES.
paksha for devotion Made a mighty feast; Milk and curds and butter, Flesh of bird and beast, Rice and spioe and honey, Sweetmeats ghi and gur,1 Gifts for all the Brahmans, Food for all the poor.
At the gates of Ganga* Daksha, held his feast; Called the gods unto it, Greatest as the least.
All the gods were gathered Round with one accord; All the gods but Uma, , All but UiwVs lord, Uma sat with Shiva On Kailasa hill; Round them stood the Rudras Watching for their will.
Who is this that cometh Lilting to his lute? All the birds of heaven Heard his music, mute.
Round his head a garland Rich of hue was wreathed: Every sweetest odour B'rom its blossoms breathed, 'Tis the Muni Narad; 'Mong the gods he fares, Ever making mischief By the tales he bears.
" Hail to lovely Hail to Uma s lord! Wherefore are they absent For her father's board? " Multiplied his merits Would be truly thrice, Could he gain your favour For his sacrifice." Wortlx of heart was Um£: To her lord she spake:— " Why dost thou, the mighty, Of no rite partake?
41 Straight I speed to Daksha Such a sight to see: If he be my father, He m.ust welcome thee."
Wondrous was in glory Daksha's holy rite; Never had creation Viewed so brave a sight.
1 Ghi: clarified butter. Gur: molasses.
2 Haridwar (Anglice Kurd war) where bhe Ganges enters the plain country.
Gods, and nymphs, and fathers, Sages, Brahmans, sprites, — Every diverse creature Wrought that rite of rites.
Quickly then a quaking Fell on all from far; Um£ stood among them On her lion car. " Greeting, gods and sages, Greeting, father mine! Work hath wondrous virtue, Where suoh aids combine.
" Guest'hall never gathered Goodlier company; Seemeth all are welcome.
All the gods but me," Spake the Muni Daksha, Stern and cold his tone;— " Welcome thou, too, daughter, Since thou com'st alone.
"But thy frenzied husband Suits another shrine; He is no partaker Of this feast of mine. M He who walks in darkness Loves no deeds of light; He who herds with demons Shuns each kindly sprite.
" Let him wander naked.— Wizard weapons wield,— Dance his frantic measure Round the funeral field.
" Art thou yet delighted With the reeking hide, Body smeared with ashes, Skulls in neokiaoe tied?
" Thou to love this monster?
Thou to plead his part! Know the moon and Ganga Share that faithless heart, " Vainly art thou vying With thy rivals' charms: Are not coils of serpents Softer than thine arms? " Words like these from Daksha Daksha's daughter heard: Then a sudden passion AH her bosom stirred.
Eyes with fury flashing, Speechless in her ire, Headlong did she hurl her ' Mid the holy fire.
Then a trembling terror Overcame each one, And their minds were troubled Like a darkened sun; ADDITIONAL NOTES.
And a cruel Vision, Faoe of lurid flame, Uma's Wrath Incarnate,.
From the altar came.
Fiendlike forms by thousands Started from his side, ' Gainst the saorificers All their might they plied: Till the saints availed not Strength like theirs to stay, .^.nd the gods distracted Turned and fled away. Pushed were hymns and chanting, Prie^ we re mocked and spurned; J^ood denied $nd scattered; Altars overturned. — Then, to save the object Sought at such a price, Like a deer in semblance Sped the eflruritice.
Soaring toward the heavens, Through the sky it fled? But the Rudras chasing Smote away its head. Prostrate on the pavement Daksha fell dismayed: — ?' Mightiest, thou hast conquered; Thee we ask for aid. '• Let not our oblations All be rendered vain; Let our toilsome labour Full fruition gain."
JMght the broken altars Shone with Shiva's form; *' Be it so.! " His blessing Soothed that frantic storm.
Soon his anger ceases, Though it soon arise; — Put the Deer's Head ever Blazes in the skies."
Indian Ballads avid other Poems.
" The personification of Urvasi herself is as thin as that of Eos or Selene1. Her name is often found in the Yeda as a mere name for the morning, and in the plural number it is u.sed to denote the dawns which passing over men bring them to old age and death. Urvasi is the bright flush of light overspreading the heaven before the sun rises, and is bu,t another form of the many mythical beings o| Greek mythology whose names take us back to the same idea or the same root. As the dawn in the Vedic hymns is called Uruki, the far-going (TSlephassa, Tele- phos), so is she also Uruasi, the wide-existing or wide-spreading; as are Europe", Euryanassa, Euryphassa, and many more of the sisters of Athene and Aphroditg. As such she is the mother of Va.sishtha, the bright being, as Oidipous is the SOD of lokaste: and although Vasishtha, like Oidipous, has become a mortal bard or sage, he is still the son of Mitra $nd Varun,a, of night and day. Her lover Purura- vas is the counterpart Qf the Hellenic Polydeuk6s; but the continuance of hei union with him depends on the condition that she never sees him unclothed. Bui the Gandharvas, impatient of her long sojourn among mortal men resolved to bring her back to their bright home; and Pururavas is thus led unwitingly to disre gard her warning. A ewe with two lambs was tied to fyer couch, and the Gandharvaf stole one of them; Urvasi said, '< They take away my darling, as if I lived in s land where there is no hero and no man." They stole the second, and she upbraided her husband again. Then Pururavas looked and said, " How can that be a lane •without heroes or men where I am?" And naked he sprang up; he thought i was too long to put on his dress. Then the Gandharvas sent a flash of lighting and Urvasi saw her husband naked as by daylight. Then she vanished. "I com* back," she said, and went. ' Then he bewailed his vanished love in bitter grief. Her promise to return was fulfilled, but for a moment only, at the Lotos-lake and Pururavas in vain beseeches her to tarry longer. * What shall I do with thj ADDITIONAL NOTES. 545 speech?' is the answer of Urvasi. « I am gone like the first df the! dawns. Piirurd- /as, go home again. I am hard to be caught like the winds. Her lover is in utte'r despair; but when he lies down to die, the heart of Urvasi was melted, and she bids him come to her on the last night of the year. On that night only he might be with her; but a son should be born to him. On that day he went up to the golden seats, and there Urvasi told him that the Gandharvas would grant him one wish, and that he must make his choice. ' Choose thou for me,' he said; and she answered, ' Say to them, Let me be one of you.'
Cox's Mythology of the Aryan Nations; Vol. I. p.- 397.
PAGE 324. The sovereign of the Vdnar race.
" Vanar is one of the most frequently occurring names by which the p'oern calls the monkeys of Rama's army. Among the two or three derivations of which the word Vanar is susceptible, one is that which deduces it from opr which signi- fies a wood, and thus Vanar would mean a forester, an inhabitant of the wood. I have said elsewhere that the monkeys, the Vanars, whom Rama led to the con- quest of Ceylon were fierce woodland tribes who occupied the mountainous regions of the south of India, where their descendants may.still be seen. 1 shall hence forth promiscuously employ the word Vdnar to denote those monkeys, those fierce combatants of Rama's army." GOKRESIO.
PAGE 326* No cliange of hue, no pose of limb Gave sign that aught mas false in liim* Concise, unfaltering, sweet and clear, Without a word to pain the ear, From chest to throat, no? high nor lortf, His accents came in measured flow.
Soine'what similarly in The Squires Tale: * He with a manly voice said his message, After the form used in his language,* Withouten vice of syllable or of letter. And for his tale shoulde seem the better Accordant to his wordes was his chere, As teacheth art of speech them that it lere.
PAGE 329.
RAMA'S ALLIANCE WITH SUGRrVA. c< Tile literal interpretation of this portion of the Ramayana is indeed deeply tooted in the mind of the Hindu. He implicitly believes that Rama is Vishnu, who became incarnate for the purpose of destroying the demon Ravana; that he permitted his wife to be captured by Ravana for the sake of delivering the gods and Brahmans from the oppressions of the Rakshasa; and that he ultimately assembled an army of monkeys, who were the progeiiy of the gods, and led them ftgainst the strong-hold of Ravana at Lanka, and delivered the world from the tyrant Rakshasa, whilst obtaining ample revenge for his own personal wronga.
One other point seems to demand consideration, namely, the possibility of such an alliaiide as that whicJh tt.im'a is ^aid to thve concluded with the monkeys* This possibility will of course be denied by modern critic,^ but still it is interesting to trace out the circumstances which seem to have led to the acceptance, of such a wild belief by the dreamy and marvel loving Hindi. The south of India swarms with monkeys of curious intelligence and rare physical powers. Their wonderful instinct for organization, their attachment to particular localities, their occasional journeys in large numbers over mountains and across rivers, their obstinate assertion of supposed rights, and the ridiculous caricature which they exhibit of all that is animal and emotional in man, would naturally create a deep impres- sion Indeed the habits of monkeys well deserve to be patiently studied; not as they appear in conttnement, when much that is revolting in their nature is developed, but as they appear living in freedom amongst the trees of the forest, or in the streets of crowded Cities, or precincts of temples. Such a study would not fail to awaken strange ideas; and although the European would not be pre- pared to regard monkeys as sacred animals, he might be led to speculate as to their origin by the light of data, which are at present unknown to the naturalist whose observations have been derived from the menagerie alone.
Whatever, however, may have been the train of ideas which led the Hindti to regard the monkey as a being half human and half divine, there can be little doubt that in the Ramayana the monkeys of southern India have been confound- ed with what may be called the aboriginal people of the country. The origin of this confusion may be easily conjectured. Perchance the aborigines of thecountry may have been regarded as a sitpefior kind of monkeys; and to this day the fea- tures of the Marawars, who are supposed to be the aborigines of the southern part of the Carnatic, are not only different from those of their neighbours, but are of a character calculated to confirm the Conjecture. Again, it is probable that the army of aborigines may have been accompanied by outlying bands of monkeys impelled by that magpie-like curiosity and love of plunder which are the peculiar characteristics of the monkey race; and this incident may have given rise to the story that the army was composed of Monkeys."
WHEELER'S History of India. Vol. II \ pp. 316 ff.
THE FALL OF BALI, PAGE 342.
" As regards the narrative, it certainly seems to refer to some real event amongst the aboriginal tribes; namely, the quarrel between an elder and younger brother for the possession of a Haj; and the subsequent alliance of Rama with the younger brother. It is somewhat remarkable that Kama appears to have formed an alliance with the wrong part}7, for the right of Bali was evidently superior to that of Sugriva; and it is especially worthy of note that Rama com- passed the death of Bali by an act contrary to all the laws of fair fighting. Again, Rama seems to have tacitly sanctioned the transfer of Tara from Bali to Sugriva, which was directly'opposed to modern rule, although in conformity with the rude customs of a barbarous age; and it is remarkable that to this day the marriage of both widows and divorced women is practised by the Marawars, or aborigines of the southern Carnatic, contrary to the deeply-rooted prejudice which exists against such unions amongst the Hindus at large."
ADDITIONAL NOTES. 547 THE VANAR HOST, PACK 3:o.
** The splendid Marutas form the army of Indras, the red-haired monkeya and bears that of Rdmas; and the mythical and solar nature of the monkeys and bears of the Ram&yanam manifests itself several times. The. king of the monkeys is a sun-god. The ancient king was named Biilin, and was the son of Indras. His younger brother Sugrivas, he who changes his shape at pleasure (Kumarupas). who, helped by R4mas, usurped his throne, is said to be own child of the sun* Here it is evident that the Vedic antagonism between Indras and Vishnus is reproduced in a zoological and entirely apish form. The old Zeus must give way to the new, the moon to the sun, the evening to the morning sun, the sun of winter to that of spring; the young son betrays and overthrows the old one Ramas, who treacherously kills the old king of the monkeys, Balin, isf the equivalent of Vishnus, who hurls his predecessor Indras from his throne; and Sugrivas, the new king of the monkeys resembles Indras when he promises to find the ravished Sita, in the same way as Vishnus in one of his incarnations finds again the lost ved&s. And there are other indications in the Ramayanatn of opposition between Indras and the monkeys who assist BAmas. The great monkey Hanumant, of the reddish colour of gold, has his jaw broken, Indfaa having struck him with his thunderbolt and caused him to fall upon a mountain, because, while yet a child, he threw himself off amountaininto the air in order to arrest the course of the sun. whose rays had no effect upon him. (The cloud rises from the mountain and hides the sun, which is unable of itself to disperse it; the tempest comes, and brings flashes of lightning and thunder-bolts, which tear the cloud in pieces.)
The whole legend of the monkey Hanumant represents the sun entering into the cloud or darkness, and coming out of it. His father ia said to be now the wind, now the elephant of the monkeys (Kapikunjaras), now Kesarin, the long-haired sun, the sun with a mane, the lion sun (whence his name of Kesarinah putrali). From this point of view, Hanumant would seem to be the brother of Sugrivas, who is also the offspring of the sun All the epic monkeys of the Rdmdj/anam are described in the twentieth canto of the first book by expressions which very closely resemble those applied in the Vedic hymns to the Marutas, as swift as the tempestuous wind, changing their shape at pleasure, making a noise like clouds, sounding like thunder, battling, hurling mountain-peaks, shaking great uprooted trees, stirring up the deep waters, crushing the earth with their arms, making the clouds fall. Thus Balin comes out of the cavern as the sun out of the cloud But the legend of the monkey Hanumant presents another curious resem- blance to that of Samson. Hanumsnt is bound with cords by Indrajit, son of Bavanas: he could easily free himself, but does not wish to do so. Ravanas to put him to shame, orders his tail to be burned, because the tail is the part most prized by monkeys • The tail of Hanumant, which sets fire to the city of the monsters, is prob- ably a personification of the rays of the morning or spring sun, which ssts fire to the eastern heavens, and destroys the a'bode of the nocturnal or winter monsters.'1 DE GUBBRNATIS, Zoolofjical Mythology, Vol. II. pp. 100 ff.
548 ADDITIONAL NOTES.
" The Jaitwas of Kajputana, a tribe politically reckoned as Rajputs, never- theless trace their descent from the monkey-god Hanuman, and confirm it by alleging that their princes still bear its evidence in a tail-like prolongation of the spine; a tradition which has probably a real ethnological meaning, pointing out the Jaitwas as of non-Aryan race." * TYLOR'S Primitive Culture, Vol. I. p. 341.
PAGE 372.
The names of peoples occurring in the following sloltas are omitted in the metrical translation: ' Go to the Brahmamalas,1 the Videhas,2 the Malavas,3 the Kasikosalas,4 the Magadhas,5 the Pundras, 6 and the Angas,7 and the land of the weavers of Bilk, and the land of the mines of silver, and the hills that stretch into the sea, and the towns and the hamlets that are about the top of Mandar, and the Karna- pravaranas,8 and the Oshthakarnakas,9 and the Ghoralohamukhas,1 ° and the * Campbell in * Journ. As. Soc. Bengal,' 1866, Part ii. p. 132; Latham, * Descr. Eth.' Vol. ii. p. 456; Tod, ' Annals of Rajasthan,' Vol. i. p. 114.
1 Said by the commentator to be an eastern people between the Himalayan and Vindhyan chains.
51 Videha was a district in the province of Behar, the ancient Mithil£ or the modern Tirhoot.
3 The people of Malwa.
4 "The Kasikosalas are a central nation in the Vayu Purana. The Ramayana places them in the east. The combination indicates the country between Benares and Oude Kosala is a name variously applied. Its earliest and most celebrated application is to the country on the banks of the Sarayu, the kingdom, of Rama, of which Ayodhya was the capital In the Mahabharata we have one Kosala in the east and another in the south, besides the Prak-Kosalas and Uttara Kosalas in the east and north. The Puranas place the Kosalas amongst the people on the back of Vindhya; and it would appear from the Vayu that Kusa the son of Rama transferred his kingdom to a more central position; he ruled over Kosala at his capital of Kusasthali of Kusavati, built upon the Vin- dhyan precipices." WILSON'S Vishnu Purdna, Vol. II. pp. 157, 172.
5 The people of south Behar.