1. The word (abbram) designates a dark, formless, enormous and terrifying abyss, particularly associated with night (1.92 5) and the underworld, and hence opposed to the light of the worlds of sky and eanh 2 Day and night, loosely associated with heaven and earth through their duality rather than through a literal idcntiGcadon of day with heat cn and night u ith earth } Sky and earth 4. Tlic embryo, or seed (jarbba), is the sun or Agnf. here sym- bolic of all creatures (licncc teeming).
5. As mother of the pods. Aditl gl'cs the blessings of life and nature C Cf » tCo 2.
7. The line where sky and earth meet, lOJ THE E.IG VEDA 8. The axis muftdi^ here identified with the sun.
9. Sky and earth.
10. They give birth to the gods.
11. Praise given by the poet to heroes and gods, and praise given to him by heroes and gods.
12. Sky and earth, or both men and gods.
13. The stranger is the ‘best enemy* or ritual competitor. Cf.
14. The word for truth here {rid) designates actual reality and order, a statement about sky and earth as well as io them.
13. True here in the sense of physical actuality.
^•70 The Tm Tull of Butter I The two full of butter, beautiful masters of all creatures, broad and wide, milked of honey, beautifully adorned — sky and earth have been propped apart, by Varuna*s law; unageing, they are rich in seed.
a Inexhaustible, rich in streams, full of milk, the two whose vows are pure are milked of butter for the one who does good deeds. You two world-halves, rulers over this umverse, pour out on us the seed that was the base for mankind.!
^ The mortal who makes an offering to you world-halves, sources of strength, so that he may walk on the right path, he succeeds: he is reborn through his progeny according to the law. Creatures with various forms but with a common vow have been poured out from you.
4 Enclosed in butter are sky and earth, beautiful in butter, ^rged on butter, grown on butter. Broad and wide, ey are the first priests ^ in the choice of the priest o the oblation. They are the ones that the priests invoke when they seek kindness.
^ f ^ earth that stream with honey, that are milked o oney, that have honey for their vow, let them soak us ■with honey, bringing sacrifice and wealth to the 0? great fame, the victory prize, and virility to us.
■> an earth, the all-knowing father and mother who SKY AND EARTH achieve wondrous works — let them swell up with food to nourish us. Let the two world-halves, that work together to give benefits to all, together thrust toward us gam, and the victory prize, and wealth.
NOTES 1. The seed ftom which mankind (or Manu) originally grew, 2. The Purohitas who cast the first vote m choosing the oblation pnest to assist them.
toy VARUNA Although Varuna’s onginal function was that of a sky god (like Ouranos, with whom his name is cognate), by the time of the Veda he had developed into a god whose primary role was watchmg over the deeds of men (as a sky god is well placed to do) and punishing those who violatiid the sacred law (f/a) of which Varuna was the most important custodian He is also, like several other Vedic gods, credited with the archetypal acts of crcauon - finding the sun, propping apart the sky and earth, and so forth (5.85). His friendship, disaffection, and ultimate reconcihauon with the sage Vasi?tha (7.86, 7.88, 7 89) form a paradigm for his stem but loving relationship with mankind in general. He is asked to protect the worshipper not only from his own avenging wrath but also from all dangers and hatreds (i.zS), an all-cncompassing role that was transferred to the gods Vi5nu and Siva in later Hinduism, when Varuna ceased to be worshipped any more.
5-85 Tbe Deeds of Varma This hymn describes the great deeds of Varuna and closes with a wish that he will pardon the mistakes of the worshipper.
z For the emperor^ I will smg a splendid, deep prayer, one that will be dear to the famous Varuna who struck apart the earth® and spread it beneath the sun as the priest who performs the slaughter spreads out the victim’s skin ® 2 He stretched out tlie middle realm of space in the trees; he laid victory m swift horses and milk in the dawn cows, intelligence in hearts and fire in the waters. Varuna placed the sun in the sky and Soma on the mountain J Over the two world-halves and the realm of space beuveen them Varuna has poured out the cask,^ turning its mouth downward With it the kmg of the whole universe waters the soil as tlic ram waters the gram.
4 He waters the soil, tlic carth,^ and the sky. Whenever Varuna wishes for milk, the mountains dress them- selves m cloud and the heroes,® brandishing then power, let tlicm loosc.'^ / I vnll proclaim the great magic® of Varuna the famous Asura,® vho stood up m the middle realm of space and measured apart the cartli with the sun as wnth a mcasuring-stick.'® 6 Mo one has dared this great magic of the most inspired god' tliat these shimmering torrents, pouring down, do not fill the one single ocean v.uh their water.** 7 If VC have committed an ofTcncc against a hospitable friend like Arjaman or a close friend like Mura,*® or against one who has alwajs been a comrade, or.a brotlicr, or a neighbour - one of our own or a stranger - looicn that oflcncc from u<, V.aruna i If wc have cheated Idc gamblers m a game, whether vre know h or featlj do no: know it,** O g,o<l, cast alt thete THE EIG VEDA offences away like loosened bonds.^^ Let vs be dear to you, Varuna.
NOTES 1. Varuna who is the king over all kings.
2. That is, struck it and made it part from the sky.
3. The sacrificial priest (Samitp) spreads the skin and places the limbs of the animal upon it. Cf. 1.162.19.
4. The overturned cask or leather bottle is a frequent metaphor for a torrent of rain. Cf. 5.83.7.
5. The earth here designates the whole world, in contrast with the surface (soil).
6. The Maruts.
7. The Maruts let loose the cloud — that is, the waters. The meta- phor may also refer to other things loosed by the Maruts — their own horses or powers — or to the explicit simile, the garments.
8. jMagic here in the sense of a miracle rather than an illusion.
9. Asura not in its later sense of ‘demon’ but in its early Vedic sense of sky god.
11. That is, although there are many rivers and rains, the ocean, though alone, contains them. No one dares this — no one dares to challenge it or to attempt it.
12. Aryaman is the god of formal hospitality to strangers, Mitra the god of intimate friendship among one’s own kind.
13. Cf. 2. 12. 10 for a sin of which one is unaware.
14. The bonds are both the offences themselves and the bonds with which Varuna punishes those who offend. Cf. 7.86 and 7.89.
7.86 Varuna Vrovoked to A^iger According to one tradition, this hymn should be read to- gether with 7.5 5, to which it is joined by a myth; In a dream (or in his sleep) one night the sage Vasis^a came to the house of Varuna; as he entered, a dog ran at him, barking and trying to bite him, but Vasistha put him to sleep with several verses (7.5 5); then King Varuna bound Vasistha with his snares, and when Vasis^aa praised his father Varuna with VARONA mote verses (7.86-9), he was released. One text says that Vasistha stole something (perhaps food), an episode that may be alluded to m the reference to Vasi?tha being like a cattlc-thicf; but it is ptcascly the unknown and indefinable nature of Vasi5thit's sin tliat gives this hymn its power. For the implication of someone else in one's own evil deed - an older brother, or a father, or the forces of wmc and anger, or the cloud of sleep - tends to negate any possible sense of remorse; one can regret tlie results of an unknown act (visible in Vanina's punishment) but not repent of its motives.* One may be punished for tlic sins of other people; in this context, sm may be a misleadmg word to use, for although tlic w'orshippcr wishes for expiauon, he wishes to be ‘free from sin’ pnmarily in the sense of being free from the (ffecti of sm. He wishes to serve Varuna m order to become free from sm, not to be free from sm m order to serve Varuna. ‘The evil th.at sleep docs not avert’ may be a bad dream or a deed committed while a sleep,® this may be tlic source of the tradition that Vasistha composed this hymn while wandering in a dream (or m his sleep), but in any case it further high- lights the tension beuveen consaous evil (sm) and unconscious evil (for w'hicli there is no good term m English).
1 The generations have become w isc by the pow'er of him who has propped apart the two world-halves even though tlie) arc so a ast.® Idc has pushed away the dome of tlic sky to make it high and wide; he has set die sun on Its double journev* and spread out the canh 2 And I ask mj own heart, ‘When shall I lie close to Varuna? Will he en)o> m> offering and not be provoked to anger? When shall 1 see his mere) and rcjO'cc?’
) 1 ask mjsclf what that transgression was, Vanina, for 1 wish to understand I turn to the w ssc to ask tl cm. TI1C poets ha\c told me tiic very saire tiling. 'Varuna has been proaol cd to anger at-aimt you.’
^ O Varuna. whar was the terrible crime for whidt sou viih to destroy jour fnend who praha \ou? ProcJa'm it THE RIG VEDA to me so that I may hasten to prostrate myself before you and be free from sin, for you are hard to deceive and are ruled by yourself alone.
/ Free us from the harmful deeds of our fathers, and from those that we have committed with our own bodies. O king, free Vasistlia like a tliief who has stolen cattle,^ like a calf set free from a rope.
6 The mischief was not done by my own free will, Varuna; wine, anger, dice, or carelessness led me astray. The older shares in the mistake of the younger.*^ Even sleep does not avert evil.
7 As a slave serves a generous master, so would I serve the furious god and be free from sin. The noble god gave understanding to those who did not understand;’ being yet wiser, he speeds the clever man to wealth.
B O Varuna, you who are ruled by yourself alone, Jet this praise lodge in your very heart. Let it go well for us always with your blessings.
NOTES 3. Creation consists in the act (here attributed to Varuna, else- where to other gods) of propping apart heaven and earth and releasing the sun.
4. Either by day in the sky and under the earth by night, or, less likely, its daily and annual revolutions.
5. Varuna binds sinners with his snares of disease and misfor- tune. The thief is set free after doing expiation for his sin - or, perhaps, in order to be led to his punishment.
6. The elder brother may be implicated in his younger brother’s lapse, or he may be the cause of it. ‘Older’ may also refer to an older generation, the ancestral sin mentioned in the previous verse.
7. The wisdom that Varuna gives to the generations is his own truth, Varuna himself is ‘yet wiser’ either than those to whom he gave understanding or than the clever man that he aids. Varuna is wise in a spiritual sense; the clever or ‘sharp ’ man is merely worldly- VA RUN A 7.88 Varinm the Fnetid of Vds/stha After an introductory verse spoken by the poet, Vasijtha speaks of his bygone friendship with Varuna, a friendship now threatened by the possibility that Vasijtha has committed some offence, which he docs not know of, and incurred tile pumshing wrath of Varuna.
j Vasi5{ha, bring a pure and most desirable poem to the bountiful Varuna, who draws toward us the great buil^ who is wortliy of sacrifice and tliousands of gifts.
2 ‘Now that I have come into his- presence, I think the face of Varuna is Agni’s Let the Lord on High® lead me to the sun tliat is in the rock'* and tlic darkness, so that 1 may see the marvel j ‘When we two, Varuna, board the boat and sad forth to tlic middle of the ocean, when w'c slum along the crests of the waters, w'c wnll swung in the swing ^ and glitter.’
^ Varuna set Vasi$tha right in the boat. The inspired master made him a seer, a poet, by his great powers, so that his days would be good dajs, so tliat his skies and dawns would stretch out.
/ ‘Wlicre have those friendships of us uvo gone, when m the old times we could live together without becoming enemies? 1 went into )our high palace, self-ruling Varuna, into your house witli a thousand doors ® 6 ‘If jour old friend and dear allj has commuted sms against jou, Varuna, do not make us who have offended . you pay for that. Aaenger, inspired one, give protcaion to the singer of praises 7 ‘As we dwell m these solid dwclllng-pkices, let Varuna set us frdc from the noose and help us win aid from the lap of Aditj. Protect us always v itli blessings.* * OTI s 1 Tlitt •••an, liroupht fpoh each tliv h> Varuna J. I’rn’raWj Vanina's pnr'erce. bin (vrrhaps that cf the •sun.
THE RIG VEDA 3. Vamna.
4. The sun. rests in the rock of darkness alljiight j it is, moreover, trapped in the cliff lontil Indra sets it free (3.3 1), a feat also attributed to Varuna.
5. Varuna, as god of the waters, has a boat that ghtters as it swings.
6. Vasi§tha’s entry into Vanina’s house is alluded to elsewhere in the RJg Veda; cf. 7.89.1 and the introduction to 7.86.
7.89 Tbe House of Clay Varuna casts his snares upon the offending worshipper in the form of dropsy; but he satisfies by the grace of his own nature the thirst of tiie man who suffers from physical or spiritual fever. Thus the waters in verse 4 refer to the feverish thirst and ‘waters’ of the dropsy and to the waters of Varuna himself. The concept of unconscious sin is implicit in verse 3 and clearly expressed in verse 5, which juxtaposes various levels of evil: offence, sin, and a violation of the cosmic law (dharma, Varuna’s law, the ‘true current’ of verse 3). All of these are tempered by the possibility that they were done care- lessly, unwittingly; for it is the duty of Varuna himself to make men thoughtful (to ‘make the generations wise’),^ and the duty of the repentant sinner to know his sin.
The house of clay is a metaphor for death on various planes: it is the urn used to store the ashes of the dead after cremation or to store their bones in burial; it is the earth, the house of the dead man; and it is the home of Varuna, to which Vasis^ha went one night.^ 1 Let me not go to the house of clay, O King Varuna, not yet. Have mercy, great ruler; be merciful.
2 If I seem to stumble and tremble like a puffed up goat- skin,^ O master of stones,^ have mercy; great ruler, be merciful.
d If through weakness of will-power I have somehow gone against the true current, O pure one, have mercy; great niler, be mercifiil.
VARONA 4 Thirst has come upon die one who sings to you as he stands m the midst of waters; have mercy, great ruler, be mcraful.
/ ]f 1VC humans have committed some offence against the race of gods, O Varuna, or through carelessness have violated your laws, do not injure us, O god, for that sin.
NOTES 3 The worshipper is palsied and swollen from dropsy, like a leather vine-bottle filled with air; and he trembles in fear of Varuna For stumbling, cf 8.48 5 4 This epithet, usually applied to Indra, refers both to the masterj' of stones used to press the Soma and to stones used as veapons in a sling.
2 28 Varuna 1 Let this song to the son of Aditi, the poet who rules himself, surpass in greatness all the songs that now exist. The god who IS comfortable to sacnficc to, the abundant Varuna, is the one I beg for lasting fame 2 Let us be happy in jour command, having praised jou, Varuna, viih good intentions, awakening like kindled fires day after day at the approach of the dawns rich m cattle.
y Ia:t us be under your protection, for you have many heroes, Varuna our leader, and your word reaches far. You sons of Aditi, gods who cannot be deceived, consent to join us.
4 Tlic ton of Aditi "ct them free to (low and ordeed them; the rivers go by the Order of Varuna nicy do not tire, nor do they unharness themselves, 'fiicy fiy swiftly- like hirdi in their orbit.
; IvHUcn nic from tin as from a sash, let us fi id the TUB RIG vnnA founiainlicad of your Order, Vnrunn. Do not let the thread break while I am still weaving this thought, nor let the measuring-stick of the workman shatter before its time.
Keep fear far away from me, Varuna, and hold fast to me, O emperor of Order. Set me free from anguish as one would free a calf from a rope; I cannot bear to live apart from you even for the blink of an eye.
7 Varuna the Asura, do not wound us with your weapons that wound the man you seek when he has committed a sin. Let us not be exiled from the light. Loosen clean away from us our failures, so that we may live.
S O Varuna born of strength, the homage to you that was made in the past long ago we would speak now, and in the time yet to come. Upon you who cannot be deceived our vows are set, unshakeablc, as if upon a mountain.
y Abolish the debts for the things I have done, O king, and do not make me pay for what has been done by others. So many more dawns have not yet risen, Varuna; make sure that we will live through them.
10 If someone I have met, O king, or a friend has spoken of danger to me in a dream to frighten me, or if a thief should waylay us, or a wolf - protect us from that, Varuna.
11 Do not let me know the loss of a dear, generous, open- handed friend, Vartina, nor let me lack tlie wealth that makes a good reign, O king. Let us speak great words as men of power in the sacrificial gathering.
RUDRA AND VISNU Rudra is a Hminal figure in the Vtda, invoked with Vcdic hymns but not invited to partake in the regular Vcdic sacrifice; as the embodiment of wildness and unpredictable danger, he IS addressed more widi the hope of keeping him at bay than with the wish to brmg him near (a form of worship tliat persists in Hinduism not in the cult of Rudra’s successor, Siva, but in the cult of the Goddess, who docs not appear in the Ktg Veda at all). Visnu is a far more typically Vcdic god, vaguely solar, benevolent, and procreative (cf. 10.184), often assoaated with Indra and prayed to jointly wth him, but appeanng alone in several hymns. The two gods arc significant not merely for their roles in the Rjg Veda but for tlic fat more important roles they were desuned to play in later sectarian liinduism.
2.53 Rjtdra, Father of the Maruts Though only three entire hymns m the R/^ Veda are addressed to Rudra, the nch ambivalence of his character is the basis of an important Ime of Indian theology that culminates in the Hindu god §iva. Rudra is fierce and destructive hkc a terrible beast, like a udld storm; the sage begs him to turn his malevolence elsewhere. Yet Rudra is not merely demonic, for he IS the healer and cooler as well as the bringcr of disease and destructive fever.
1 Father of the Maruts,^ send your kindness here. Do not cut us off from the sight of the sun. Let the hero spare our horses ® O Rudra, let us be born again tlirough our children.
2 By those most healing mcdiancs that you give, Rudra, I would attam a hundred winters. Drive hatred far away from us, and anguish farther away; drive diseases aw.ay in all direaions.
} Of what IS born, you, Rudra, arc tlic most glonous in glory, the strongest of tlic strong, with the thunder- bolt in your hand * Carry us safclj to the fartlicr shore of anguish,’ ward off all attacks or injury.
^ We would not v.ash to anger jou, Rudra the bull,* by acts of homage or ill praise,* or by invoking j ou together with another god.* Raise up our heroes with your healing medicines; 1 hear tliat of all healers jou arc the best healer.
/ If someone should call him with inaocations and obla- tions, thinking, T vtU appease Rudra vith songs ot praise’ - maj the soft-hc-trted * god vho is cas) to invo! c, the tav, ny god w hose lips arc full" — ina\ he not su'pcct us of tliat and give u» over into the jw..cr of hiv anger."
Tlic bull* with the Maruts insjiircd me v uh hn vital ercr|;y whm I v-as in nerd of I dp 1 long to a.i.n tf e THE RIG VEDA kindness of Rudra, as I would long to reach the shade unharmed in the heat of die sun.
7 Where is your merciful hand, Rudra, so healing and cool- ing, that removes the injury that comes from the gods? Have mercy on me, O bull.
8 I send Iiigh praise to the high bull, tawny and wliite. I bow low in homage to the radiant one. We praise the dreaded name of Rudra.
^ The fierce, tawny god of many forms has adorned his firm limbs with shimmering gold. Never let the Asura power® draw away from Rudra, the ruler of this vast world.
10 Rightiy you carry the arrows and bow; righdy you wear the precious golden necklace shaped widi many forms and colours; righdy you extend this terrible power over everything.^® There is nothing more powerful than you, Rudra.
11 Praise him, the famous young god who sits on the high seat,^ the fierce one who attacks like a ferocious wild beast. O Rudra, have mercy on the singer, now that you have been praised. Let your armies strike down someone other than us.
12 As a son bows to his father who greets him, so I bow to you, Rudra, as you approach, I sing to the giver of plenty, the true lord; being praised, give us healing medicines.
jj? Your healing medicines, O Maruts, so pure, so strength- ening, so comforting, that our father Manu^® chose - I desire these, O bulls, and happiness and health from Rudra.
14 Let the weapon of Rudra veer from us; let the great malevolence of the dreaded god go past us. Loosen the taut bows for the sake of our generous patrons; O bountiful one, have mercy on our children and grand- children.
7 O tawny and amassing bull, O God, do not become in- censed or kill us. Be here for us, Rudra, and hear our zzz RTJDRA. AKD VI5NU call. Let US Speak great words as men of power in the sacrificial gathermg.
NOTES I. This hymn transfers to Rudra several attributes usually asso- ciated with India, such as the companionship of the Maruts, the thunderbolt, and the bull.
2 This verse may also imply a wish that Rudra will spare the worshipper when he is on horseback. Elsewhere in the Rig Veda (t. 114.8), Rudra is asked not to harm horses.
j. For the image of crossing over danger, cf 10 127 6 and 1.92.6.
4. The implication is that the worship may be given in an un- satisfactory way.
5. Many gods arc invoked in pairs or groups in the Rig Veda, but never Rudra, who is given offerings separately from all other gods. The worshipper ma> also fear that he might offend Rudra by pairing him with an inferior god.
6. A vain hope or an optimistic euphemism, like calling the Greek Furies the Eumcnidcs or ‘well-disposed’.
7. The adjective, also applied to Indra, particularly indicates that his lips arc ready to drink Soma 8. The verse implies that the wrong-minded worshipper might think he could bribe Rudra and that such a man’s thought might provoke Rudra to anger The poet asks Rudra not to suspicct iin of such blasphemy. The verse rums upon the multiple meanings of rtittiJ. thought (the blasphemy), suspicion (Rudra’s), and anger (abo Rudra’s) 9 Here the term ‘antra’ still has its connotation of a cla«5 of ditinities, though its later meaning, 'demonic', v.ould abo be ap- piopriatc 10 Rudra.
10. The poM cr of chaos and darl ntrss (a^/ran), Cf 1 iFj.
It. Probabl) the scat on a chariot, rather than a thrrmc.
ti. Tins tmj recall the time of original treat im.st hen V'anj.the father of nianlJnd, (irt I Indlcd the ractifinal fire and offered Sivna to the god*, Soma tnas be the source of the ‘hralinr tredi- emes' ("'nen to Msnu in return for sicriticc. For Rudra and -J THE RIG VEDA 1.114. Have MerQ< oti Us, Rjidra 1 We bring these thoughts to the mighty Rudra, the god with braided hair/ who rules over heroes, so that it vdil be well with our two-footed and four-footed creatures, and in this village all will flourish unharmed, 2 Have mercy on us, Rudra, and give us life-force. We wish to bow low in service to you who rule over heroes. Whatever happiness and health Manu the father- won by sacrifice, we wish to gain that with you to lead us forth.
^ We wish to gain your kindness, Rudra, through sacrifice to the gods, for you are generous. O ruler over heroes, come to our families with kindness. Let us offer the oblation to you with our heroes free from injury.
4 We call down for help the dreaded Rudra who com- pletes the sacrifice, the sage who flies.® Let him repel far from us the anger of the gods; it is his kindness that we choose to have.
/ Tawny boar of the sky, dreaded form with braided hair, we call you down and we bow low. Holding in his hand the healing medicines that we long for, let him grant us protection, shelter, refuge.
6 These words are spoken for Rudra, the father of the Maruts, words sweeter than sweet, to strengthen him. And grant us, O immortal, the food for mortals. Have mercy on us, and on our children and grandchildren.
7 Do not slaughter the great one among us or the small one among us, nor the growing or the grown. Rudra, do not kill our father or our mother, nor harm the bodies dear to us.^ S Do not harm us in our children or grandchildren, nor in our life-span, nor in our cows or in our horses. Rudra, do not in fury slaughter our heroes. With oblations we call you here for ever.
9 I ^ve driven these praises to you as the herdsman drives his cattle. Grant us kindness, father of the Maruts, KUDRA AND VI?ND for your kindness brings blessings most meraful, and so it IS your help that we choose to have.
10 Keep far away from us your cow-kilhng and man-killmg power, O rtiler of heroes. Have mercy on us and speak for us, O god, and grant us double protection.® 11 Seeking help, we have spoken in homage to him. Let Rudra with the Maruts hear our call. Let Mitra, Varuna, Adiu, Smdhu,® Earth and Sky grant this to us.
NOTES 1. Rutin’s long hair is braided or piled on top of his head in a chignon 2. As the primeval ancestor of man, Manu performed the first sacrifice by mortals for immortals 4, Either out own bodies or the bodies of people we love j. Probably protection from his own w rath as well as from that of the other gods (before whom he is asked to speak on behalf of the worshipper), or from the killing of men and the killmg of cattle.
6 A n\ ct goddess.
1.154 The Three Strides oj Vi fun Yifnu, like Rudra, seems prominent m the R/ij Veda only through Hindu hindsight; though he is often invoked in conjunction with Indra (with whom Rudra also has close tics), he IS merely one of several similar gods of n gcncralij fohr and bcncfiaal dnraacr. Tins hjmn is the basts of the later mjth of the dwarf as-atar who takes three steps to win the w orld from the demons.
Visnu’s three space creating step- prop apart and thereby make the basic two part Untterse* the canhly regions and the ’upper dwelhng-placc* (v. 1) or ‘highest foo'i'cp’ (vv. th- teat o'" the immonal potls {w. 5.^). panicu'ariy 01 \ isnu (or of Vt*ru with Indral. It 11 «ignTiran' it at three steps ate needed to accomplish this split tn'o ts o; the parados THE RIG VEDA becomes stdkiiigly explicit in verse 4, where Visnu supports the threefold heaven and earth; the mediating third is Vi^nu himself, who embodies ‘ all creatures The three steps suggest many metaphorical levels. In the solar symbolism, they may be dawn, noon, and sunset, or three phases of the year that Visnu ‘measures apart^ (w. i and 3). These steps are called strides {vikrama, w. 1—2 and 5) or steps (J>aday w. 3-6), the latter with many complex con- notations that enlarge the metaphor. Its primary meaning is ‘foot’ (cognate with that word as with Latin pes, pedis), it then designates ‘step’ (the foot’s action) and ‘footprint’ (the foot’s after-image), as well as ‘stand’ or ‘base’ in the sense of dwelling-place (later devotional Hinduism makes much of the fact that the lowest part of god is the highest part of the universe). In the final YQtsQs^pada refers both to the actual place where men and gods dwell and the footstep which marks the place, in which the honey-fountain springs as water fills the mark made by a cow’s hoof.^ 1 Let me now sing the heroic deeds ^ of Visnu, who has measured apart the realms of earth, who propped up® the upper dwelling-place, striding far as he stepped forth three times.