The Upanishads are many in number, by some said to be one hundred and eight; others declare them to be still more numerous. Those which on the face of them bear the evidence of genuineness have been taken up by the great Teachers and commented upon, especially those upon which Sankara, and later Rama- nuja wrote commentaries. There are one or two more ideas with regard to the Upanishads which I want to bring to your notice; for these are an ocean of knowledge, and to talk about the Upanishads even by an incompetent person like myself, takes years, and not one lecture only. I want therefore, to bring to your notice one or two of the more important points in the study of the Upanishads. In the first place, they are the most marvellous poems in the world. If you read the Samhita portion of the Vedas, you now and then find passages of most marvellous beauty. For instance, the famous Sloka which describes chaos — "When darkness was hidden in darkness." One reads and feels the wonderful sublimity of the poetry. Do you mark this, that outside of India, and inside of India also, there have been attempts at painting the sublime. But outside it has always been the sublime VEDANTA IN ALL ITS PHASES 29I as seen in the external world, the infinite of matter, or of space. When Milton or Dante, or any other great European poet, either ancient or modern, seeks to paint a picture of the infinite, he tries to soar out- side, to make you feel the infinite through the external. That attempt has been made in India also. You find in the Samhitas, the infinite of enumeration, the infinite of extension, most marvellously painted and placed before the readers, as has been done nowhere else. Mark that one sentence: ''When darkness was hidden in darkness," and now mark the description of dark- ness by three poets. Take your own Kalidasa — "Darkness which can be penetrated with the point of a needle"; Milton — "No light but rather darkness visible"; but here — "Darkness was covering darkness," "Darkness was hidden in darkness." We who live in the Tropics can understand it, the sudden outburst of the monsoon, when in a moment, the horizon becomes darkened, and the sky becomes covered with more and more rolling black clouds, and these again in denser blackness until it is literally "Darkness hidden in dark- ness." In India as everywhere else, attempts at find- ing the solution of the great problems of life have first been made through the external world. Just as the Greek mind, or the modern European mind tries to find the solution of life and of all the sacred prob- lems of being by searching into the external world, so did our own forefathers; and just as the Europeans failed, they failed also. But the Westerners never made a move more, they remained there; they failed in the search for the solution of the great problems of life and death in the external world, and there they remained stranded; but our forefathers were bolder 292 JNANA YOGA and declared the utter helplessness of the senses to find out the solution. Nowhere else was the fact better put than in the same Upanishad — ''From whence the word comes back reflected by the mind." There are various sentences which declared the utter helplessness of the senses; but they did not stop there, they fell back upon the internal nature of man, they sought to get the answer from their own souls, they became introspective; they gave up exploring external nature as a failure, as nothing could be done there. No hope, no answer could be found; they discovered that dull dead matter would not give them truth, and they fell back upon the shining soul of man, and there the answer was found.
"Know this Atman," they declared; "give up all vain words and hear no other." In the Atman they found the solution — the greatest of all dtmans, the God, the Lord of this Universe, His relation to the atman of man, our duty to Him, and through that our relation to each other. And herein you find the most sublime poetry in this world. No more is the attempt made to paint this Atman in the language of matter. Nay, they have even given up all positive language. No more do they attempt to find in the senses the idea of the Infinite, no more is there an external, dull, dead, material, spatial, sensuous Infinite; but instead of that, comes something which is as fine as that say- ing about darkness, and what poetry in the world can be more sublime than this?
"There the sun cannot illumine, nor the moon, nor the stars, a flash of lightning cannot illumine the place; what to speak of this mortal fire?"
Such poetry you find nowhere else. Take that most VEDANTA IN ALL ITS PHASES 293 marvellous Upanishad, the Katha. What wonderful finish, what most remarkable art are displayed in that poem! How wonderfully it opens, with that high- minded boy, whose father devoted him to Yama (Death), and how that most wondrous of all teachers, Death himself, unfolds to him the great lessons of life and death. And what was the quest of that fearless youth? To know the secret of death.
The second point that I want you to remember is the perfectly impersonal character of the Upanishads. Although we find many names, and many speakers, and many teachers in the Upanishads, not one of them stands as an authority for the Upanishads, not one verse is based upon the life of any one of them. They are simply figures like shadows moving in the back- ground, imfelt, unseen, unrealized, but the real force is in the marvellous, the brilliant, the effulgent texts of the Upanishads, which are perfectly impersonal. If Yagnavalkya never lived, or died, it would not mat- ter, the texts are there. And yet the teachings are against no personality; they are broad and expansive enough to embrace all the personalities that the world has yet produced, and all that are to be produced. Nothing is said against the worship of persons, or Avataras, or sages. On the other hand, all worship is upheld by the Upanishads. It is a most marvellous idea, like the God it preaches, the impersonal idea of the Upanishads. At the same time, for the sage, the thinker, the philosopher, for the rationalist, it is as impersonal as any modern scientist can wish. And these are our Scriptures. You must remember that what the Bible is to the Christians, what the Qu'ran 294 J NANA YOGA is to the Mohammedans, what the Tripitaka is to the Buddhists, what the Zend Avesta is to the Parsis, these Upanishads are to us. These, and nothing but these are our Scriptures. The Purdnas, the Tantras, and all the other books, even the Vydsa Sutras, are of secondary, or tertiary authority, but primary are the Vedas. Manu and the Purdnas, and all the other books are to be taken so far as they agree with the authority of the Upanishads, and when they disagree they are to be rejected without mercy. This we ought to remember always. The Upanishads are the words of the Rishis, our forefathers, and you have to believe them if you want to be a Hindu. You may even believe the most peculiar ideas about the God-head, but if you deny the authority of the Vedas, you are a Ndstika, an atheist. The Scrip- tures of other religions are all Purdnas and not Scrip- tures, because they describe the history of the deluge, and the history of the kings and reigning families, and record the lives of great men, and so on. This is the work of the Purdnas, and so far as they agree with the Vedas, very good, but when they do not agree, they are not to be accepted. So with the QuVan, there are many moral teachings in it and so far as they agree with the Vedas, they have the authority of the Purdnas, but no more. The idea is that the Vedas were never written, that they never came into existence. I was told once by a Christian missionary that their Scriptures have historical character and therefore are true. To which I replied: "Mine have no historical character, and therefore they are true; yours being historical were evidently made by some VEDANTA IN ALL ITS PHASES 295 man the other day. Yours are man-made but mine are not; their non-historical character is in their favor." These are the relations of the Vedas to the other Scriptures of the world.
We now return to the teachings of the Upanishads. Various texts are there. Some are entirely dualistic. There are certain doctrines which are agreed to by all the different sects in India. First, there is the doc- trine of Samsdra, or reincarnation of the soul. Sec- ondly, they all agree in their psychology; there is the body, behind that what is called the Sukshma Sarira (the mind), and behind that is the Jiva (the soul). The great difference between Western and Indian psychology is that in the former the mind is the soul; in the latter it is not. The antahkarana, the internal instrument, as the mind is called, is only an instrument, in the hands of the Jiva, through which the Jiva works on the body, or on the external world. Here Hindus all agree, and they all also agree that this Jiva (or Atman, or Jivdtman as it is called by different sects) is eternal, without beginning or end; and that it goes from birth to birth until it gets final release. They all agree in this, and they also all agree in one vital point which marks most characteristically, most prom- inently, most completely, the difference between the Indian and the Western mind, and it is this — that everything is in the soul. There is no inspiration properly speaking, but rather expiration. All power, all purity, and all greatness — everything is in the soul.^ The Yogi would tell you that the Siddhis (powers) that he is striving to attain to, are not to be attained, in the proper sense of the word, but are already in 296 J NANA YOGA the soul; the work is to make them manifest. Patan- jaH, for instance, would tell you that even in the low- est worm that crawls under your feet, are already existing all the eightfold powers of the Yogi. The difference has been made by the body; the powers are there but they will have to be brought out through the medium of a suitable body. Patau jali gives the cele- brated example of the cultivator bringing water into his field from a huge tank somewhere. The tank is already filled and the water would flood his land in a moment, only there is a wall between the tank and his field. As soon as the barrier is broken, in rushes the water by its own power and force. Power and puri- ty and perfection are in the soul already, but they are hidden by this Avarana— this veil — that has been cast over them. Once the veil is removed, the soul mani- fests its powers which are its real nature. This, you ought to remember, is the fundamental difference between Eastern and Western thought. When you find people teaching such awful doctrines as that we are all born sinners always remember that if we are by our very nature sinful, we never can become good. How can nature change? If it changes, it contra- dicts itself; it is not nature. We ought never to forget this. Here the Dvaitins, the Advaitins, and all others in India agree.
The next point upon which all the sects in India are agreed is belief in God. Of course, their ideas of God will be different. The dualists believe only in a per- sonal God. I want you to understand this word per- sonal a little more. It does not mean that God has a body, sits on a throne somewhere, and rules this VEDANTA IN ALL ITS PHASES 297 world; but personal means Saguna, ''with qualities." There are many descriptions of the personal God. This personal God as the Ruler, the Creator, the Pre- server, and the Destroyer, of this universe, is believed in by all sects. The Advaitins believe something more. They believe in a still higher phase of this personal God, which is personal-impersonal. No adjective can illustrate where there is no qualification, and the Advaitin would not give God any qualities except the three — Sat-Chit-Ananda, Existence — Knowledge — Bliss Absolute. That is what Sankara did, but in the Upanishads themselves you find that they penetrate even further, and say nothing can be said except ''Neti, Neti," *'Not this, Not this." According to Ramanuja the great modern representa- tive of the dualistic system these three entities are eternal — God, Soul, and Nature. The souls are eter- nal, and they will remain eternally existing, and will retain their individuality forever. Your soul will be difTerent from my soul through all eternity, says Ramanuja, and so will Nature which is an existing fact, as much so as the existence of soul, or the exist- ence of God — Nature will remain always. And God is interpenetrating the essence of the soul. He is the Antarayamin (the Soul of our souls). In this sense Ramanuja sometimes thinks that God is one with the soul, the essence of the soul, and that at the time of Pralaya (the end of a cycle, or dissolution of phenom- ena), when the whole of Nature becomes what he calls Sankocha (contracted), these souls become con- tracted, or minute, and remain so for a time. At the beginning of the next cycle, they all come out accord- 298 JNANA YOGA ing to their past Karma. Every action that dims the inborn, natural purity and perfection of the soul, is a bad action; and every action that causes these to shine forth and expand the soul is a good action, says Ramanuja. And thus the soul is going on, expanding or contracting by its actions, until through the grace of God, comes salvation. And that grace comes to all souls, says Ramanuja, that are pure, and struggle to gain it.
There is a celebrated verse in the Srutis: "When the food is pure then the Sattva becomes pure, when the Sattva becomes pure then the smriti (the memory of the Lord, or the memory of our own perfection — if you are an Advaitin) becomes truer, steadier, and absolute." Here arises a great discussion. First of all what is this Sattva? We know that according to the Sankhya — and it has been admitted by all our sects of philosophy — the body is composed of three sorts of gunas (materials — ^not qualities). It is the general idea that Sattva, Rajas and Tamas are qualities. Not at all, they are not qualities but materials of this uni- verse, and with dhdra suddhi (pure food), the Sattva material becomes pure. The one aim of the Vedanta is to get this Sattva. As I have told you, the soul is already pure and perfect but, according to the Vedanta, it is covered up by Rajas and Tamas particles. The Sattva particles are the most luminous, and the efful- gence of the soul penetrates through them as easily as light through glass. So if the Rajas and Tamas particles are eliminated, leaving the Sattva particles uncovered, the powers and purity of the soul will appear, and make the soul more manifest. Therefore VEDANTA IN ALL ITS PHASES 299 it is necessary to have this Sattva. The text says: ''When the dhdra becomes pure, etc." Ramanuja takes this word dhdra to mean food, and he has made it one of the turning points of his philosophy. Not only so, but the idea has affected the whole of India, and all the different sects. Therefore, it is necessary for us to understand what it means, for according to Ramanuja, dhdra suddhi is one of the principal fac- tors in our life. "What makes food impure?" asks Ramanuja. According to him, three sorts of defects make food impure — first, jdti, that is, the very nature of the class to which the food belongs, as onion, gar- lic and so on. The next is dsraya^ or the person from whom the food comes. A wicked person is dsraya and food coming from him will make you impure. I myself have seen many great sages in India following strictly that advice all their lives. The third defect is nimiita dosha, impurity in the food itself, as hairs dirt, etc. If only that food be taken from which these three defects have been removed, that will make Sattva suddhi, will purify the Sattva. Religion then would seem to be a very easy task! But now comes Sankaracharya, who says this word dhara does not mean pure food, but pure thought collected in the mind; when the mind becomes pure, the sattva becomes pure and not before that. You may eat what you like. If food alone would purify the sattva, then feed a monkey with milk and rice all its life, would it become a great Yogif As has been said if it is by bathing much one goes to heaven, then the fishes would get there first. If by eating vegetables a man gets to heaven, the cows and the deer will get there 300 JNANA YOGA before him. But what is the solution? Both are necessary. Of course, the interpretation that San- karacharya gives to the text is the fundamental and more important one. But pure food no doubt, helps pure thought, it has an intimate connection; both ideas ought to be acted upon. The defect is that many have forgotten the advice of Sankaracharya and have taken only the "pure food" meaning of dhara.
According to the dualistic sects of India, the indi- vidual souls remain as individuals throughout, and God is the Creator of the universe out of pre-existing mate- rial. He is the efficient cause. According to the Ad- vaitins, on the other hand, God is both the material and the efficient cause of the universe. He is not only the Creator of the universe, but He creates it out of Himself. The one sect of Advaitins that you see in modern India is composed of the followers of Sankara. According to Sankara, God is both the material and the efficient cause through Maya, but not in reality. God has not become this universe, but the universe appears because God is its Background. This is one of the highest points to understand of Advaitic Vedan- ta, this idea of Mdyd. I am afraid I have not time now to discuss this one most difficult point in our philosophy. Those of you who are acquainted with Western philosophy will find something very similar in Kant. But I must warn you, those of you, who have studied Professor Max Muller's writings on Kant, that there is one idea most misleading. It was Sankara who first found out the idea of the identity of time, space, and causation, with Mdyd, and I had the good fortune to find one or two passages in San- VEDANTA IN ALL ITS PHASES 3OI kara's commentaries and send them to my friend the Professor. So even that idea was to be found in India. Now this is a pecuHar theory — this Maya theory of the Advaita Vedantins. The Brahman is all that exists, but differentiation has been caused by this Maya. Unity, the one Brahman, is the ultimate, the goal, and herein is an endless dissension again between Indian and Western thought. India has thrown this challenge to the world for thousands of years, and the challenge has been taken up by different nations and the result is that they have all succumbed and you live. This is the challenge, that this world is a delusion, that it is all Maya, that whether you eat off of the ground with your fingers, or dine from golden plates, whether you live in palaces or hovels; are the mightest monarchs or the poorest beggars, death is the one result; it is all the same, all Maya. That is the old Indian theme, and again and again nations are springing up trying to unsay it, to disprove it, becoming great, enjoyment their watchword, power in their hands, and they use that power to the utmost, enjoy to the utmost, and the next moment they die. We stand forever because we see that everything is Maya. The children of Maya live forever, but chil- dren of enjoyment die.
Here is again another great difference. Just as you find in German philosophy the attempts of Hegel and Schopenhauer you will find the very same ideas coming in ancient India. Fortunately for us Hegelianism was nipped in the bud, and not allowed to sprout out and cast its baneful shoot over this mother-land of ours. Hegel's one idea is that the One, the Absolute, 302 J NANA YOGA 302 J NANA YOGA is only chaos, and that the individualized form is the greater. The world is greater than the non- world, Samsdra is greater than Salvation. That is the one idea, and the more you plunge into this Samsdra, the more your soul is covered with the workings of life, the better you are. They say: "Do you not see how we build houses, cleanse the streets, enjoy the senses?" Aye, but behind that, behind every bit of that enjoy- ment, may lurk rancor, misery, and horror. On the other hand, our philosophers have from the very first declared that every manifestation, what is called evo- lution, is a vain attempt of the Unmanifested to manifest Itself. After making the attempt for a time, man finds out it is vain, and gives it up. This is Vairdgyam, or renunciation, and is the very beginning of religion. How can religion or morality begin with- out renunciation? The Alpha and Omega is renun- ciation. "Give up," say the Vedas, "give up." That is the one way, give up.
"Neither through wealth, nor through progeny, but by renunciation alone immortality is to be reached." That is the dictate of the Indian Scriptures. Of course, there have been great givers up of the world even sitting on thrones, but even Janaka himself had to renounce; who was a greater renouncer than he? But in modern times we all want to be called Janakas. They are all Janakas, all over India, but unfortu- nately I find them only *Janakas of children, unclad, ill-fed, miserable children. That is all they are of Janaka, not with shining, God-like thoughts as the old Janaka was. These are our modern Janakas! If * Janaka means also "progenitor."
VEDANTA IN ALL ITS PHASES 303 you can give up, you will have religion. If you can- not, you may read all the books that are in the world, from East to West, swallow all the libraries, and become the greatest of pandits, but with all that there will be no spirituality. "Through renunciation alone immortality is to be reached." It is the power, the great power, that cares not even for the universe. Renunciation, that is the flag, the banner of India, floating out to the world, the one undying thought which India sends again and again as a warning to dying races, as a warning to all tyranny, as a warning to wickedness in the world. Aye, Hindus, let not your hold of that banner go! Hold it aloft! Even if you are weak, and cannot renounce the world, try not to be hypocrites, torturing texts, and making specious arguments. Do not do that, but admit you are weak. For the idea is great, that of renunciation. What matters if millions fail in the attempt, if one, if two, if ten return victorious? Blessed be the millions that died; their blood has bought the victory. This renunciation is the one ideal of nearly all the different Vedic sects. We want orthodoxy, even the hideous- ly orthodox, even those who smother themselves with ashes, even those who stand with their hands uplifted.