however, who had said, " What is above us is nothing to us," wished notwithstanding to have a peep at the sky, and found the sun to be a foot in diameter. Thus far you must confess ^ men were niggardly in even celestial objects. In process of time their ambitious conceptions advanced, and so the sun too en- larged its disk. 3 Accordingly, the Peripatetics marked it out as a larger world." Now, pray tell me, what wisdom is there in this hanker- ing after conjectural speculations? What proof is afforded to us, notwithstanding the strong confidence of its assertions, by the useless affectation of a scrupulous curiosity,^ which is tricked out with an artful show of language? It therefore served Thales of Miletus quite right, when, star-gazing as he walked with all the eyes he had, he had the mortification of falling* into a well, and was unmercifully twitted by an Egyptian, who said to him, " Is it because you found nothing on earth to look at, that you think you ought to confine your gaze to the sky?" His fall, therefore, is a figurative picture of the phi- losophers; of those, I mean, 7 who persist in ' Sine capite.
2 Scilicet.
3 Aciera.
4 Majorera orbem. Another reading has " majorem orbe,' f.d. " as larger than the world."
5 Morositatis.
^ Cecidit turpiter 7 Scilicet.
applying * their studies to a vain purpose, since they indulge a stupid curiosity on natural ob' jects, which they ought rather (intelligently to direct) to their Creator and Governor.
CHAP. V. — THE PHYSICAL THEORY CONTINUED. FURTHER REASONS ADVANCED AGAINST THE DIVINITY OF THE ELEMENTS.
Why, then, do we not resort to that far more reasonable" opinion, which has clear proof of being derived from men's common sense and unsophisticated deduction? '° Even Varro bears it in mind, when he says that the elements are supposed to be divine, because nothing whatever is capable, without their concurrence," of being produced, nourished, or applied to the sustenance" of man's life and of the earth, since not even our bodies and souls could have sufificed in themselves without the modification '^ of the elements. By this it is that the world is made generally habitable, — a result which is harmoniously se- cured "* by the distribution into zones,'^ except where human residence has been rendered impracticable by intensity of cold or heat. On this account, men have accounted as gods — the sun, because it imparts from itself the light of day, ripens the fruit with its warmth, and measures the year with its stated periods; the moon, which is at once the solace of the night and the controller of the months by its governance; the stars also, certain indications as they are of those seasons which are to be observed in the tillage of our fields; lastly, the very heaven also under which, and the earth over which, as well as the intermediate space within which, all things conspire to- gether for the good of man. Nor is it from their beneficent influences only that a faith in their divinity has been deemed compatible with the elements, but from their opposite qualities also, such as usually happen from what one might call '* their wrath and anger- as thunder, and hail, and drought, and pesti- lential winds, floods also, and openings of the ground, and earthquakes: these are all fairly enough '' accounted gods, whether their nature becomes the object of reverence as being favourable, or of fear because terrible — the sovereign dispenser,'^ in fact,'' both of help and of hurt. But in the practical conduct of 8 Habituros.
8 Huraaniorem. 'o Conjectura. " SufEragio. '2 Sationem. «3 Temperamento. '4 Foederata.
IS Circulurum conditionibus. «6 Tanquam. »6 Jure. «8 Domina. '^ Scilicet.
AD NATIONES.
[book II.
social life, this is the way in which men act and feel: they do not show gratitude or find fault with the very things from which the succour or the injury proceeds, so much as with them by whose strength and power the operation of the things is effected. For even in your amusements you do not award the crown as a prize to the flute or the harp, but to the musician who manages the said flute or harp by the power of his delightful skill.' In like manner, when one is in ill-health, you do not bestow your acknowledgments on the flannel wraps, "^ or the medicines, or the poul- tices, but on the doctors by whose care and prudence the remedies become effectual. So, again, in untoward events, they who are wounded with the sword do not charge the injury on the sword or the spear, but on the enemy or the robber; whilst those whom a falling house covers do not blame the tiles or the stones, but the oldness of the building; as again shipwrecked sailors impute their calam- ity not to the rocks and waves, but to the tempest. And rightly too; for it is certain that everything which happens must be as- cribed not to the instrument with which, but to the agent by whom, it takes place; inasmuch as he is the prime cause of the occurrence, ^ who appoints both the event itself and that by whose instrumentality it comes to pass (as there are in all things these three particular elements — the fact itself, its instrument, and its cause), because he himself who wills the occurrence of a thing comes into notice " prior to the thing which he wills, or the instrument by which it occurs. On all other occasions, therefore, your conduct is right enough, be- cause you consider the author; but in physical phenomena your rule is opposed to that natural principle which prompts you to a wise judg- ment in all other cases, removing out of sight as you do the supreme position of the author, and considering rather the things that happen, than him by whom they happen. Thus it comes to pass that you suppose the power and the dominion to belong to the elements, which are but the slaves and functionaries. Now do we not, in thus tracing out an artificer and master within, expose the artful structure of their slavery ^ out of the appointed functions of those elements to which you ascribe (the attributes) of power?^ But gods are not ' Vi suavitatis.
2 Lanis.
3 Caput facti. ■4 Invenitur.
5 Servitutis artem. "Artem " Oehler explains by " artificiose institutum."
* We subjoin Oehler's text of this obscure sentence: " Non in ista investi^atione alicujus artificis intus et domini servitutis ar- tem ostendimus elementorum certis ex operis " (for " operibus,'' not anusual in Tertullian) "eorum quas facis potestatis?
slaves; therefore whatever things are servile in character are not gods. Otherwise^ they should prove to us that, according to the ordinary course of things, liberty is promoted by irregular licence,' despotism by liberty, and that by despotism divine power is meant. For if all the (heavenly bodies) overhead forget not 5 to fulfil their courses in certain orbits, in regular seasons, at proper distances, and at equal intervals — appointed in the way of a law for the revolutions of time, and for directing the guidance thereof — can it fail to result "^ from the very observance of their conditions and the fidelity of their operations, that you will be convinced both by the recurrence of theif orbital courses and the accuracy of their muta- tions, when you bear in mind how ceaseless is their recurrence, that a governing power pre- sides over them, to which the entire manage- ment of the world " is obedient, reaching even to the utility and injury of the human race? For you cannot pretend that these (phenomena) act and care for themselves alone, without contributing anything to the advantage of mankind, when you maintain that the elements are divine for no other reason than that you experience from them either benefit or injury to yourself. For if they benefit themselves only, you are under no obligation to them.
CHAP. VI. THE CHANGES OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES, PROOF THAT THEY ARE NOT DIVINE. TRANSITION FROM THE PHYSICAL TO THE MYTHIC CLASS OF GODS.
Come now, do you allow that the Divine Being not only has nothing servile in His course, but exists in unimpaired integrity, and ought not to be diminished, or suspended, or destroyed? Well, then, all His blessedness " would disappear, if He were ever subject to change. Look, however, at the stellar bodies; they both undergo change, and give clear evi- dence of the fact. The moon tells us how great has been its loss, as it recovers its full form; '3 its greater losses you are already ac- customed to measure in a mirror of water; '^ so that I need not any longer believe in anywise what magians have asserted. The sun, too, is frequently put to the trial of an eclipse. Explain as best you may the modes of these celestial casualties, it is impossible '^ for God 7 Aut.
8 De licentia passivitatis libertas approbetur.
9 Meminerunt. '0 Num non.
•' Universa negotiatio mundialis.
'2 Felicitas.
•3 These are the moon's monthly changes.
•5 Tertullian refers to the Magian method of watching eclipses, the ci/oirrpo^ai'Tcia.
'6 Instead of "non valet," there i-. the reading " non volet," " God would not consent," etc.
CHAP. VII.]
AD NATIONES.
either to become less or to cease to exist. Vain, therefore, are ' those supports of human learning, which, by their artful method of weaving conjectures, belie both wisdom and truth. Besides,- it so happens, indeed, ac- cording to your natural way of thinking, that he who has spoken the best is supposed to have spoken most truly, instead of him who has spoken the truth being held to have spoken the best. Now the man who shall carefully look into things, will surely allow it to be a greater probability that those ^ elements which we have been discussing are under some rule and direction, than that they have a motion of their own, and that being under govern- ment they cannot be gods. If, however, one is in error in this matter, it is better to err simply than speculatively, like your physical philosophers. But, at the same time,'* if you consider the character of the mythic school, (and compare it with the physical^ the error which we have already seen frail men s mak- ing in the latter is really the more respectable one, since it ascribes a divine nature to those things which it supposes to be superhwnan in their sensibility, whether in respect of their position, their power, their magnitude, or their divinity. For that which you suppose to be higher than man, you believe to be very near to God.
CHAP. VII. — THE GODS OF THE MYTHIC CLASS. THE POETS A VERY POOR AUTHORITY IN SUCH MATTERS. HOMER AND THE MYTHIC POETS. WHY IRRELIGIOUS.
But to pass to the mythic class of gods, which we attributed to the poets,^ I hardly know whether I must only seek to put them on a par with our own hiwian mediocrity, or whether they must be affirmed to be gods, with proofs of divinity, like the African Mop- sus and the Boeotian Amphiaraus. I must now indeed but slightly touch on this class, of which a fuller view will be taken in the proper place. ^ Meanwhile, that these were only human beings, is clear from the fact that you do not consistently call them gods, but heroes. Why then discuss the point? Al- though divine honours had to be ascribed to dead men, it was not to them as such, of course. Look at your own practice, when with similar excess of presumption you sully heaven with the sepulchres of your kings: is ' Viderint igitur " Let them look to themselves," " never mind them."
2 Alias.
3 Ista.
4 Sedenim.
5 Mortalitas.
7 See The Apology, especially cc. xxii. and xxiii.
it not such as are illustrious for justice, vir- tue, piety, and every excellence of this sort, that you honour with the blessedness of dei- fication, contented even to incur contempt if you forswear yourselves* for such characters? And, on the other hand, do you not deprive the impious and disgraceful of even the old prizes of human glory, tear up' their decrees and titles, pull down their statues, and deface "* their images on the current coin? Will He, however, who beholds all things, who ap- proves, nay, rewards the good, prostitute be- fore all men " the attribute of His own inex- haustible grace and mercy? And shall men be allowed an especial amount of care and righteousness, that they may be wise '- in se- lecting and multiplying '^ their deities? Shall attendants on kings and princes be more pure than those who wait on the Supreme God? '* You turn your back in horror, indeed, on outcasts and exiles, on the poor and weak, on the obscurely born and the low-lived;'5 but yet you honour, even by legal sanctions,"^ unchaste men, adulterers, robbers, and par- ricides. Must we regard it as a subject of ridicule or indignation, that such characters are believed to be gods who are not fit to be men? Then, again, in this mythic class of yours which the poets celebrate, how uncer- tain is your conduct as to purity of conscience and the maintenance thereof! For whenever we hold up to execration the wretched, dis- graceful and atrocious (examples) of your gods, you defend them as mere fables, on the pretence of poetic licence; whenever we volunteer a silent contempt'' of this said"* poetic licefice, then you are not only troubled with no horror of it, but you go so far as '' to show it respect, and to hold it as one of the indispensable (fine) arts; nay,^ you carr)' out the studies of your higher classes^' by its means, as the very foundation ~ of your litera- ture. Plato was of opinion that poets ought to be banished, as calumniators of the gods; (he would even have) Homer himself expelled from his republic, although, as you are aware,-' he was the crowned head of them all. But 8 Pejerantes.
9 Lancinatis. 10 Repercutitis. " Vulgo.
12 Sapere. The infinitive oi purpose is frequent in our author. J3 Distribuendis.
'4 An allusion to Antinous, who is also referred to in Tke Apol- ogy, xiii. [" Court-pafje." See, p. 29, Supra.']
15 Inhoneste institutes.
16 By the " legibus" Tertullian refers to the divine honours or- dered to be paid, by decrees of the Senate, to deceased emperors, Comp. Suetonius, Octav. 88; and Pliny, Paneg. 11 (Oehler).
2° Denique. 2' Ingenuitatis. ^^ Initiatricem. 23 Sane.
AD NATIONES.
[book il while you admit and retain them thus, wliy should you not believe them when they dis- close such things respecting your gods? And if you do believe your poets, how is it that you worship such gods (as they describe)? If you worship them simply because you do not believe the poets, why do you bestow praise on such lying authors, without any fear of giving offence to those whose calumniators you honour? A regard for truth ' is not, of course, to be expected of poets. But when you say that they only make men into gods after their death, do you not admit that before death the said gods were merely human? Now what is there strange in the fact, that they who were once men are subject to the dishonour'' of human casualties, or crimes, or fables? Do you not, in fact, put faith in your poets, when it is in accordance with their rhapsodies 3 that you have arranged in some instances your very rituals? How is it that the priestess of Ceres is ravished, if it is not because Ceres suffered a similar outrage? Why are the chil- dren of others sacrificed to Saturn, ■» if it is. not because he spared not his own? Why is a male mutilated in honour of the Idsean goddess Cybele, unless it be that the (unhappy) youth who was too disdainful of her advances was castrated, owing to her vexation at his daring to cross her love?^ Why was not Hercules " a dainty dish " to the good ladies of Lanu- vium, if it was not for the primeval offence which women gave to him? The poets, no doubt, are liars. Yet it is not because of their telling us that^ your gods did such things when they were human beings, nor because they predicated divine scandals ^ of a divine state, since it seemed to you more credible that gods should exist, though not of such a char- acter, than that there should be such charac- ters, although not gods.
CHAP. VIII. THE GODS OF THE DIFFERENT NATIONS. VARRO'S GENTILE CLASS. THEIR INFERIORITY. A GOOD DEAL OF THIS PER- VERSE THEOLOGY TAKEN FROM SCRIPTURE. SERAPIS A PERVERSION OF JOSEPH.
There remains the ge?itile class of gods amongst the several nations:^ these were adopted out of mere caprice, not from the knov.'ledge of the truth; and our information about them comes from the private notions of » Fides.
2 Polluuntur.
3 Relationibus.
4Comp. The jipology, ix. [See, p. 25, SupraC^ SComp. Minucius Felix, Octant, xxi.; Amobius, adv. Nat. v. (J, 7: Augustine, Civ. Dei, vi. 7.
°This is the force of the su/rjuncdve verb.
7 By divine scandals, he means such as exceed in their atroc hy even human scandals.
different races. God, I - imagine, is every- where known, everywhere present, powerful everywhere — an object whom all ought to worship, all ought to serve. Since, then, it happens that even they, whom all the world worships in common, fail in the evidence of their true divinity, how much more must this befall those whom their very votaries ^ have not succeeded in discovering! For what use- ful authority could possibly precede a theology of so defective a character as to be wholly unknown to fame? How many have either seen or heard of the Syrian Atargatis, the African Coelestis, the Moorish Varsutina, the Arabian Obodas and Dusaris, or the Norican Belenus, or those whom Varro mentions — Deluentinus of Casinum, Visidianus of Nar- nia, Numiternus of Atina, or Ancharia of Asculum? And who have any clear notions '° of Nortia of Vulsinii? " There is no difference in the worth of even their names, apart from the human surnames which distinguish them. I laugh often enough at the little coteries of gods '- in each municipality, which have their honours confined within their own city walls. To what lengths this licence of adopting gods has been pushed, the superstitious practices of the Egyptians show us; for they worship even their native '^ animals, such as cats, crocodiles, and their snake. It is therefore a small matter that they have also deified a man — him, I mean, whom not Egypt only, or Greece, but the whole world worships, and the Africans swear by; aboutwhose state also all that helps our conjectures and imparts to our knowledge the semblance of truth is stated in our own (sacred) literature. P'or that Serapis of yours was originally one of our own saints called Joseph.'* The youngest of his brethren, but superior to them in intellect, he was from envy sold into Egypt, and became a slave in the family of Pharaoh king of the country. '5 Importuned by the unchaste queen, when he refused to comply with her desire, she turned upon him and reported him to the king, by whom he is put into prison. There he dis- plays the power of his divine inspiration, by interpreting aright the dreams of some (fellow- prisoners). Meanwhile the king, too, has some terrible dreams. Joseph being brought 9 Municipes. " Their local worshippers or subjects."
1° Perceperint.
" Literally, " Have men heard of any Nortia belonging to the Vulsinensians? " >2 Dcos decuriones, in allusion to the stnall provincial si-nates which in the later times spread over the Roma.i colonies and mti~ nicipia.
' ) Privatas.
•4 Compare Suidas, s. v. SapaTri?; Rufinus, Hist. Eccl. ii. 23. As Serapis was Joseplj in disguise, so was Joseph a type of Christ, according to the ancient Christians, who were fond of subordinat- ing heathen myths to Christian theology.
■5 TertuUian is not the only writer who has made mistakes in citing from memory Scripture narratives. Comp. Amobius.
CHAP. IX.]
AD NATION ES.
before him, according to his summons, was able to expound them. Having narrated the proofs of true interpretation which he had given in the prison, he opens out his dream to the king: those seven fat-fleshed and well- favoured kine signified as many years of plenty; in like manner, the seven lean-fleshed animals predicted the scarcity of the seven following years. He accordingly recom- mends precautions to be taken against the future famine from the previous plenty. The king believed him. The issue of ail that hap- pened showed how wise he was, how invariably holy, and now how necessary. So Pharaoh set him over all Egypt, that he might secure the provision of corn for it, and thenceforth administer its government. They called him Serapis, from the turban ' which adorned his head. The peck-like = shape of this turban marks the memory of his corn-provisioning; whilst evidence is given that the care of the supplies was all on his head,^ by the very ears of corn which embellish the border of the head-dress. For the same reason, also, they made the sacred figure of a dog,"* which they regard (as a sentry) in Hades, and put it under his right hand, because the care of the Egyptians was concentrated s under his hand. And they put at his side Pharia,^ whose name shows her to have been the king's daughter. For in addition to all the rest of his kind gifts and rewards, Pharaoh had given him his own daughter in marriage. Since, however, they had begun to worship both wild animals and human beings, they combined both figures under one form Anubis, in which there may rather be seen clear proofs of its own character and condition enshrined ^ by a nation at war with itself, refractory ® to its kings, despised among foreigners, with even the appetite of a slave and the filthy nature of a dog.
CHAP. IX. THE POWER OF ROME. ROMANIZED ASPECT OF ALL THE HEATHEN MYTHOLOGY. VARRO'S THREEFOLD DISTRIBUTION CRITI- CISED. ROMAN HEROES (/ENEAS INCLUDED,) UNFAVOURABLY REVIEWED.
Such are the more obvious or more remark- able points which we had to mention in connec- tion with Varro's threefold distribution of the gods, in order that a sufificient answer might seem to be given touching the physical, the poetic, and the gentile classes. Since, how- ' Suggestu.
' '*'Iodialis.
J Super caput esse, i.e., was entrusted to him.
*Canem dicaverunt.
S Compressa.
* Isis; comp. TAe Apology, xvi. [See p. 31, supra^ 1 Consecrasse..
* Recontrans.
ever, it is no longer to the philosohers, nor the poets, nor the nations that we owe the sub- stitution of all (heathen worship for the true religion) although they transmitted the super- ^ stition, but to the dominant Romans, who received the tradition and gave it wide author- ity, another phase of the widespread error of man must now be encountered by us; nay, another forest must be felled by our axe, which has obscured the childhood of the de- generate worship' with germs of superstitions gathered from all quarters. Well, but even the gods of the Romans have received from (the same) Varro a threefold classification into the certain, the uncertahi, and the select. What absurdity! What need had they of uncertain gods, when they possessed certain ones? Unless, forsooth, they wished to commit themselves to '° such folly as the Athenians did; for at Athens there was an altar with this inscription: " To the unknown gods." " Does, then, a man worship that which he knows nothing of? Then, again, as they had certain gods, they ought to have been con- tented with them, without requiring select ones. In this want they are even found to be irreligious! For if gods are selected as onions are," then such as are not chosen are declared to be worthless. Now we on our part allow that the Romans had two sets of gods, common and proper; in other words, those which they had in common with other nations, and those which they themselves de- vised. And were not these called Xh.^ public and the foreign '^ gods? Their altars tell us so; there is (a specimen) of the foreign gods at the fane of Carna, of the public gods in the Palatium. Now, since their common gods are comprehended in both the physical and the mythic classes, we have already said enough concerning them. I should like to speak of their particular kinds of deity. We ought then to admire the Romans for that third set of the gods of their encfnies,^* because no other nation ever discovered for itself so large a mass of superstition. Their other deities we arrange in two classes: those which have become gods from human beings, and those which have had their origin in some other way. Now, since there is advanced the same colourable pretext for the deification of the dead, that their lives were meritorious, we