IT belongs to the same power to continue and to repair after interruption, as is the case with the powers of nature in regard of bodily health. But man perseveres in good by the aid of divine grace: therefore, if he has fallen by sin, he may be recovered by help of the same grace.* 2. An agent that requires no predisposition of its subje6t, can imprint its effect on its subject, howsoever disposed. But God, requiring no pre- disposition of the subje6t of His a6tion, when the subje6t is corporeal, — as when He gives sight to the blind, or raises the dead to life,— does not require any previous merit either in the will for the conferring of His grace, which is given without merits (Chap. CXLIX). Therefore even after a man has fallen from grace by sin, God can confer on him the grace that puts the recipient in the state of grace, whereby sins are taken away.
5. In the works of God there is nothing in vain, as neither in the works of nature, for nature has this prerogative of God. Now it would be in vain for anything to move with no chance of arriving at its term. Whatever naturally moves to a certain end, must be somehow competent to get there. f But after a man has fallen into sin, so long as the state of this life lasts, there remains in him an aptitude of being moved to good, shown by such signs as desire of good and grief at evil. Therefore there is some possibility of his return to good.
6. There exists in nature no potentiality, which cannot be reduced to a<5t by some natural active power. Much less is there in the human soul any potentiality, which is not reducible to a6t by the adlive power of God. But • But the vigour of a natural constitution is of t a True, in the individual, plant or animal, no avail for restoring life, once it is interrupted by there are many potentialities frustrate and made void, death. And mortal sin is death. The whole question That is neither here nor there in philosophy. Philois whether mortal sin is such a death as to be, in sophy deals not with individuals but with species; God's ordinary providence, beyond resurrection, not with Bucephalus or Alexander, but with horse, This point cannot be determined a priori. Apart man. Enough that one seed ever germinates, and from His promises, God is not bound ever to forgive that all normal specimens are apt to do the like, any mortal sin. Whether He will forgive, and on meeting with proper environment." — Ethics and what conditions, depends on His free good pleasure, Natural Lai9f p. 17. and that is ascertainable only by revelation, and its vehicle, Christian tradition.
even after sin there still remains in the human soul a potentiality of good, because the natural powers, whereby the soul is related to its proper good, are not taken away by sin.
Therefore it is said: Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be made white as snow (Isai. i, 18): Charity cover eth all sins (Prov. x, 12). Nor do we ask of the Lord in vain, Forgive us our trespasses.
Hereby is refuted the error of the Novatians, who said that man cannot obtain pardon for sins committed after baptism.* CHAPTER CINlll-That Man cannot be delivered from Sin except by Grace BY mortal sin man is turned away from his last end. And to that last end he is set on his way only by grace. 2. Offence is removed only by love.f But by mortal sin man quarrels with God: for it is said that God dates' sinners, inasmuch as He is minded to deprive them of the last end, which He has in preparation for them who love Him. Man then cannot rise from sin except by grace, whereby friendship is established between God and man.
Hence it is said: It is I who blot out thine iniquities for my own sake (Isai. xliii, 25).
Hereby is refuted the error of the Pelagians, who said that man can rise from sin by free will.
CHAPTER CLIX-How Man is delivered from Sin BECAUSE man cannot return to one opposite without retiring from the other, to return to the state of righteousness he must withdraw from sin, whereby he had declined from righteousness. And because it is chiefly by the will that man is set on the way to his last end, or turned away therefrom, he must not only withdraw from sin in exterior aft by ceasing to sin, but he must further withdraw in will, that so he may rise again by grace. Now withdrawal of the will from sin means at once repen- tance for the past and a resolution to avoid sin in future. For if a man did not purpose to cease from sin, sin as it is in itself (or sin in general) would not be contrary to his will. If he were minded to cease from sin, but had no sorrow for sin past, that same particular sin of which he was guilty would not be against his will. J Now the will must withdraw from sin by taking the course contrary to that which led it into sin. But it was led into sin by appe- tite and delight in inferior things. Therefore it must withdraw from sin by certain penal inflidtions. As delight drew it to consent to sin, so these in- flidtions strengthen it in abomination of sin.
* How far the pardon of post-baptismal sin was declaring truths that we believe on the revelation of obtainable through the Church's ministrations, or God, there are certain probable arguments ready to was to be looked for only from the unconvenanted hand, which may be advanced for the exercise and mercies of God, was another matter of controversy consolation of believers, but not for the confutation in the early Church. of opponents."
t May one not come to forgive without positively I This remark tells against Luther, whose propocoming to love the offender? Yes, when the offender sition: " The height of penance is not to do the was a stranger to begin with. But a friend is thor- thing again: the best penance is a new life," was oughly forgiven only by being re-admitted to friend- condemned by Leo X less for what it affirms than for ship. — At the same time we do well to recall St Tho- what it virtually excludes, mas's prefatory remark (B. I, Chap. IX): — " For When then man by grace has obtained pardon for his sin and has been restored to the state of grace, he still remains bound by God's justice to some punishment for his sin. If of his own will he exadts this punishment of him- self, he is thereby said to 'make satisfaction' to God, inasmuch as by punish- ing himself for his sin he fulfils with labour and pain the order instituted of heaven, which order he had transgressed by sinning and following his own will. But if he does not exa6t this punishment of himself, it will be infli&ed by God, since the domain of divine providence cannot be suffered to lie in disorder. The punishment in that case will not be called ' satisfa&ory,' since it will not be of the choice of the sufferer, but it will be called 'purificatory,* or 'purgatorial/ because he will be purified and purged by another punishing him; and so whatever was inordinate in him will be brought back to due order. Hence the Apostle says: If we were to judge ourselves, we should not be judged: but while we are judged^ we are chastised by the Lord, that we may not be condemned with this world (i Cor. xi, 31).
Nevertheless, in the process of conversion, the disgust for sin and the fixing of the affections on God may be so intense as that there shall remain no outstanding liability to punishment. For the punishment which one suffers after the forgiveness of sin is necessary to bring the mind to cleave more firmly to good, — punishments being medicines, — as also for the observance of the order of justice in the punishment of the sinner. But love of God, especially when it is vehement and strong, is sufficient to establish man's mind in good; and intense disgust for a past fault carries with it great sorrow for the same. Hence by the vehemence of the love of God and hatred for sin there is excluded any further need of satisfactory or purgatorial punish- ment.* And though the vehemence be not so great as totally to bar the punishment, nevertheless, the greater the vehemence, so much less of punish- ment will suffice.
But what we do through our friends we are reckoned to do of ourselves, inasmuch as friendship makes two one in heart, and this is especially true of the love of charity: therefore, as a man may make satisfaction to God of him- self, so also may he do it through another, especially in case of necessity: for the punishment which his friend suffers on his account he reckons as his own punishment; and thus punishment is not wanting to him in that he has compassion for the sufferings of his friend, and that all the more for his being the cause of his friend's suffering. And again the affedtion of charity in him who suffers for his friend makes his satisfaction more acceptable to God than it would be if he were suffering for his own doings: for the one is an effort of spontaneous charity, the other an acquiescence in necessity. Hence we learn that one man may make satisfaction for another, provided both of them be in charity. Hence the saying of the Apostle: "Bear ye one another's burdens^ and so ye shall fulfil the law of Christ (Gal. vi, 2).
• The very vehemence of love and sorrow, how- take his after-life easy: even if he thought all his obli- ever, prompts this sort of penitent to make satisfaction gations cancelled, he would still insist on paying by bodily penances: he will not indulge himself, or more.
CHAPTER CLX— That it is reasonably reckoned a Mans own Fault if he is not converted to God> although he cannot be converted without Grace SINCE no one can be set on the way to his last end without the aid of divine grace, or without it have the necessary means of reaching that end, as are faith, hope, love and perseverance, some might think that man is not to blame for being destitute of these gifts, especially seeing that he cannot merit the assistance of divine grace, nor be converted to God unless God convert him: for none is responsible for that which depends on another. But allow this, and many absurdities follow. It follows that the man who has neither faith nor hope nor love of God, nor perseverance in good, still does not deserve punishment: whereas it is expressly said: He that believetb not the Son shall not see lifey but the wrath of God abidetb on him (John iii, 36). And since none reaches the end of happiness without the aforesaid endow- ments, it would follow further that there are some who neither attain to happiness nor yet suffer punishment of God: the contrary whereof is shown from what will be said to all present at the judgement of God: Come...possess ye the kingdom prepared for you, or, Depart...into everlasting fire To solve this doubt, we must observe that though one can neither merit divine grace beforehand, nor acquire it by movement of his free will, still he can hinder himself from receiving it: for it is said of some: They have said unto God, Depart from us, we will not have the knowledge of thy ways (Job xxi, 14). And since it is in the power of free will to hinder the recep- tion of divine grace or not to hinder it, not undeservedly may it be reckoned a man's own fault, if he puts an obstacle in the way of the reception of grace. For God on His part is ready to give grace to all men: He wills all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth (1 Tim. ii, 4). But they alone are deprived of grace, who in themselves raise an obstacle to grace. So when the sun lights up the world, any evil that comes to a man who shuts his eyes is counted his own fault, although he could not see unless the sunlight first came in upon him.* * Of the eternal lot of such as, wilfully sinning His Apostles otherwise insist so strongly? Probably against the light, rejecl the known truth of their Savi- Lactantius and Origen are right in their conjecture, our, there never can be any doubt. The doubt and that though the Saviour of all is likewise judge of all difficulty begins when we turn to others, who never (A6ls xvii, 31), and will gather all nations (r. 32) be- have heard of Christ, or who, however much they fore His judgement-seat, yet the sheep and goats here have heard of Him, never seem to have gathered particularised are good and bad; Christians. The hea- tidings sufficient and adequate to their minds. Their then who contumaciously rejecl Christ are already situation, to the Christian thinker who mixes in judged and condemned (John iii, 18: Mark xvi, 16). Of modern life and knows men, is one of the darkest the heathen to whom Christ has not been preached, regions of his theology. He can but fall back on his we get no information here."
Lord's precept: Judge not (Matt, vii, 1). St Thomas himself habitually views the Christian On the dichotomy Matt, xxv, 31-46, I quote in every man; and hardly conceives, still less can be Scripture Manuals for Catholic Schools, St Matthew, considered here to discuss, the position of him who pp. 2 1 2-3: " But why is no mention made of faith, is not a Christian and a Catholic, a condition of salvation upon which our Saviour and CHAPTER CLXI-TAat a Man already in Mortal Sin cannot avoid more ^Mortal Sin without Grace* m WHEN it is said that it is in the power of free will to avoid putting obstacles to grace, that saying is to be understood of those in whom the natural faculty is unimpaired by sin.f But if the will has fallen into evil courses by some previous inordinate aft, it will not be altogether in its power to avoid putting obstacles in the way of grace. For though for some momentary occasion it may abstain from some particular aft of sin by its own power, nevertheless, if left long to itself, it will fall into sin; and by sin an obstacle is put to grace. For when the mind of man turns aside from the state of righteousness, it clearly puts itself out of relation with its due end. Thus what ought to be the prime objeft of its affeftions, as being its last end, comes to be less loved than that other objeft to which it has inordi- nately turned, making of it another last end. Whatever in such a posture of the mind occurs to fit in with the inordinate end, however inconsistent with the due end, will be chosen, unless the will be brought back to due order, so as to prefer the due end to all others, — and that is an effeft of grace. But the choice of anything inconsistent with the last end puts an obstacle in the way of grace, as grace goes to turn one in the direftion of the end. Hence after sin a man cannot abstain from all further sin before by grace he is brought back to due order.
Moreover, when the mind is inclined to a thing, it is no longer impar- tial between two alternatives. And that to which the mind is more inclined it chooses, unless by a rational discussion, not unattended with trouble, it is withdrawn from taking that side: hence sudden emergencies afford the best sign of the inward bent of the mind. But it is impossible for the mind of man to be so continually watchful as rationally to discuss whatever it ought to do or not to do. Consequently the mind will at times choose that to which it is inclined by the present inclination: so, if the inclination be to sin, it will not stand long clear of sin, thereby putting an obstacle in the way of grace, unless it be brought back to the state of righteousness.
Further we must consider the assaults of passion, the allurements of sense, the endless occasions of evil-doing, the ready incitements of sin, sure to pre- vail, unless the will be withheld from them by a firm adherence to the last end, which is the work of grace.
Hence appears the folly of the Pelagian view, that a man in sin can go on avoiding further sins without grace. On the contrary the Lord bids us pray: Lead us not into temptation^ but deliver us from e^iL But though persons in sin cannot of their own power help putting ob- stacles in the way of grace, unless they be forestalled by some aid of grace, J * This chapter is complementary to Chapter t NaturaRs potentia Integra. Among theologians, CLVI. There we saw that a man in the state of nature Integra means a nature such as Adam had grace still needs a succession of actual graces to enable before the fall.
him to observe the law of God on essential points I It may be asked: How can he be forestalled by steadily and to the end. Here we learn that a man any aid of grace, who puts obstacles in the way of in mortal sin needs actual graces to prevent his falling grace, by being already in sin and going on to fresh deeper. This chapter follows from the former as the sin? The answer is, that grace and good will are less from the greater: for the victory that the man in strong enough to break down any obstacle. But in grace cannot gain, still less can the sinner gain. The this case a great grace is needed, e.g., a thorough two chapters together argue that, left to his own unaided fright. And that is the rationale of the sermons on nature, unsupported by the movements of actual grace, hell that are preached in Lenten missions. They every man capable of mortal sin will at times commit are as heavy siege artillery to breach the castle of the such sin. strong man armed (Luke xi, 21).
GOD & HIS CREATURES BOdK III still this lack of power is imputable to them for a fault, because it is left be- hind in them by a fault going before; as a drunken man is not excused from murder, committed in drunkenness, when he gets drunk by fault of his own.* Besides, though this person in sin has it not in his unaided power altogether to avoid sin, still he has power here and now to avoid this or that sin: hence whatever he commits, he voluntarily commits, and the fault is imputed to him not undeservedly.t CHAPTER CLXII~Tf>at some Men God delivers from Sin, and some He leaves in Sin THOUGH the sinner raises an obstacle to grace, and by the exigence of the order of things ought not to receive grace, nevertheless, inas- much as God can work setting aside the connatural order of things, as when He gives sight to the blind, or raises the dead, He sometimes out of the abundance of His goodness forestalls by the assistance of His grace even those who raise an obstacle to it, turning them away from evil and convert- ing them to good. And as He does not give sight to all the blind, nor heal all the sick, that in those whom He heals the work of His power may appear, and in the others the order of nature may be observed, so He does not fore- stall by His aid all who hinder grace, to their turning away from evil and conversion to good, but some He so forestalls, wishing in them His mercy to appear, while in others He would have the order of justice made manifest. J Hence the Apostle says: God, though willing to show his wrath, and to mal(e his power known, endured with much longsuffering vessels of wrath, fitted for destruction, that he might show forth the riches of his glory upon the vessels of mercy i which he hath prepared unto glory (Rom. ix, 22, 23).
But when, of men who are enthralled in the same sins, God forestalls and converts some, and endures, or permits, others to go their way according to the order of things, we should not enquire the reason why He converts these and not those: for that depends on His sheer will, just as from His sheer will it proceeded that, when all things were made out of nothing, some things were made in a position of greater advantage than others (digniora).§ Hence again the apostle says: Hath not the potter power over the clay, to make of the same lump one vessel unto honour and another unto dishonour? (Rom. ix, 2 1.)
# Akin to this is the problem of the * cauterised nary means for healing the sick and even giving sight conscience/ discussed by St Alphonsus Liguori in the to the blind, so in the supernatural order He has opening of his Moral Theology, — the imputability provided an ordinary means for the justification of of sin to one who has become so habituated to it as the sinner in the Sacraments of Baptism and Penance?
to commit sin as a matter of course on every occa- Miracles are exceptional, but the forgiveness of sins is sion, without giving it a second thought, with no part of the Church's daily ministry; and the gratia hesitation and no remorse. praveniensy necessary to bring the sinner to avail himt The upshot of the foregoing chapter is this, self of this ministry, has to be presupposed as part of that a man in mortal sin has got himself into a false the institution. The fuller and fuller recognition of position; and his position will go on growing morally this consoling truth is a typical instance of the 'deveworsc unless he makes strenuous efforts to get out of lopment ' of the mind of the Church, it, turning to God and asking His aid: if he will not On the texts from Romans quoted here cf. &(otes do that, he must be answerable for the growing de- on 5/ Paul, pp. 395-397.
terioration of his state. He sins therefore, but it is § Even if all material things were made on a dead not always easy to say precisely when he sins. In level of hot gas, still in that uniform medium there was general, he sins when he could help himself to do a promise and potency of differentiation, which can better, and will not. have depended only on the arbitrary will of the t May we not however observe that as in the Creator. But query, — Could differentiation ever have natural order of things God has provided, in the ac- come out of a uniform medium? Or civilisation out quired skill of physicians and surgeons, certain ordi- of uniform savagery?
Hereby is refuted the error of Origen, who said that the reason why some were converted to God, and not others, was to be sought in divers works that their souls had done before they were united with their bodies, a theory already set aside (B. II, Chapp. XLIV, LXXXIII).
CHAPTER CLXIII-TAat God is Cause of Sin to no Man THOUGH there are some sinners whom God does not convert to Himself, but leaves them in their sins according to their deserts, still He does not induce them to sin.
1. Men sin by deviating from God their last end. But as every agent a6ts to its own proper and befitting end, it is impossible for God's adiion to avert any from their ultimate end in God.
2. Good cannot be the cause of evil, nor God the cause of sin.
3. All the wisdom and goodness of man is derived from the wisdom and goodness of God, being a likeness thereof. But it is repugnant to the wisdom and goodness of man to make any one to sin: therefore much more to divine wisdom and goodness.
4. A fault always arises from some defeat of the proximate agent, not from any defe<5t of the prime agent. Thus the fault of limping comes from some defe<5t of the shin-bone, not from the locomotor power, from which power however is whatever perfection of movement appears in the limping. But the proximate agent of human sin is the will. The sinful defeat then is from the will of man, not from God, who is the prime agent, of whom how- ever is whatever point of perfedt adtion appears in the a<5t of sin.* Hence it is said: Say not, He himself bath led me astray: for be bath no use for sinful men: He bath commanded none to do impiously, and be hath not given to any man license to sin (Ecclus xv, 1 2, 2 1): Let none, when he is tempted, say that be is tempted by God: for God tempteth no man to evil (James i, 13).
Still there are passages of Scripture, from which it might seem that God is to some men the cause of sin. Thus it is said: / have hardened the heart of Pharaoh and his servants (Exod. x, 1 ): Blind the heart of this people, and make its ears dull, and close its eyes, lest perchance it see with its eyes, and be concerted, and I heal it: Thou bast made us wander from thy ways: Thou bast hardened our heart, that toe should not fear thee (Isai. vi, 10: lxiii, 17): God delivered them over to a reprobate sense, to do those things which are not seemly (Rom. i, 28). All these passages are to be understood as meaning that God does not bestow on some the help for avoiding sin which He bestows on others. This help is not merely the infusion of grace, but also an exterior guardianship, whereby the occasions of sin are providentially removed from a man's path. God also aids man against sin by the natural light of reason, and other natural goods that He bestows on man.f When then He withdraws these aids from some, as their conduct deserves that he should, according to the exigency of His justice, He is said to harden them, or to blind them.
* e.g., the strategy of an unjust war. That is how t e.g., good parents, a good wife, good taste, good we may with propriety enjoy the record of the exploits government, of heroes whom we cannot consider just or good men.
CHAPTER CLXIV-Of Predestination, Reprobation, and Divine RleEHon SINCE it has been shown that by the action of God some are guided to their last end with the aid of grace, while others, bereft of that same aid of grace, fall away from their last end; and at the same time all things that are done by God are from eternity foreseen and ordained by His wis- dom, as has also been shown, it needs must be that the aforesaid distinction of men has been from eternity ordained of God. Inasmuch therefore as He has from eternity pre-ordained some to be guided to the last end, He is said to have c predestined ' them. Hence the Apostle says: Who hath predestined us to the adoption of sons, according to the purpose of his will (Eph. i, 5). But those to whom from eternity He has arranged not to give grace,* He is said to have c reprobated,' or 6 hated/ according to the text: I have loved Jacob, and hated "Esau (Malach. i, 2). In point of this distinction, inasmuch as some He has reprobated and some He has predestined, we speak of the divine 'ele&ion,' of which it is said: He hath eleEled us in him before the constitution of the world (Eph. i, 4). Thus it appears that predestination and election and reprobation is a part of divine providence, according as by the said providence men are guided to their last end. And it may be shown that predestination and elec- tion do not induce necessity, by the same arguments whereby it was shown that divine providence does not take away contingency from creation (Chap. LXXII.
But that predestination and election have no cause in any human merits may be shown, not only by the fa<5t that the grace of God, an effeCt of pre- destination, is not preceded by any merits, but precedes all merit, but also by this further faft, that the divine will and providence is the first cause of all things that are made. Nothing can be cause of the will and providence of God; although of the effeCts of providence, and of the effects of predestina- tion, one effeft may be cause of another, t For who hath first given to him, and recompense shall be made him? For of him and by him and in him are all things: to him be glory for ever, Amen (Rom. xi, 35, 36).
# That is, not * efficacious 9 grace, or grace with and taken. The first determination is entirely gratuiwhich they will finally comply, though He gives them tous, and independent of all regard to merit in the * sufficient ' grace for salvation. recipient. This all Catholics confess. The second t There are two steps in predestination: (i) God's determination has been matter of great controversy determination to give grace; (2) God's determination among Catholic theologians, whether it is in view of